Gender Inequality Research Articles

Gender Stratification, Racial Disparities, and Student Debt Trajectories in the United States

In the United States, post-secondary educational outcomes are stratified by gender, with women attending college and completing their degrees at higher rates. At the same time, student loan debt has become an ubiquitous part of the college process for many pursuing higher education, increasing the financial risks associated with the pursuit of higher education while lessening the financial rewards. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) of young adults who ever attended a post-secondary institution and growth curve models, we estimate gender disparities in student debt trajectories throughout young adulthood. Building on work on the racialization of the student debt landscape (Houle & Addo 2022), we also investigate the intersection of race and gender, and include both within race gender analyses and within gender racial analyses. Gender differences in student debt at baseline, or at the age of first college enrollment, are large and the gender debt gap grows at 1.2% per year. We document evidence of a curvilinear relationship in student debt in young adulthood, with student debt accumulating at the beginning of the college enrollment period and the rate of increase declining over time as adults age. Women, who start the period with larger amounts of student debt, experience faster growth in their debt accumulation followed by lower declines relative to young adult men. These patterns are magnified among Black young adults, with the gender debt disparity between Black women and Black men growing 3.4% annually. We find no association between gender and student debt trajectories among Latinx and White young adults. Within-gender models highlight the prevalence of the student debt crisis among Black women and Black men. Additional analyses suggest gender differences in debt trajectories are a function of postsecondary and young adult socioeconomic characteristics, reflecting broader societal inequalities that stem from structural elements related to post-secondary schooling and economic status. These patterns may inhibit wealth-building among women and Black adults in the United States.

Analysis of Neshani Andreas's The Purple Violet of Oshaantu as a Presentation of the Writer's Liberal African Feminist Thought to the Inequalities of Rural Namibian Women

ABSTRACT: This study examines the plight of women's rights in a Namibian Oshiwambo traditional male-dominated society, a concept that has not been fully explored in Namibian literature. The article uses the liberal African feminist theoretical framework, whose main argument is that men and women are not different and they should be treated equally. These feminists identify the main cause of female oppression as male domination. The aim of this research is to enable the reader to understand the impact of male dominance as the source of gender inequality and injustice against rural women and to erode the belief that women are inferior to men, highlighting Namibian rural women's capability of owning property and becoming self-reliant. Hence, the study uses Neshani Andreas's work to express this concern and seeks to pave the way to challenge all forms of male domination in an attempt for women to regain their voice, identity, and rights.

Gender equality in STEMM: the legitimisation of existing inequalities through “resistance talk”

Purpose Despite some recent progress, gender inequality remains a persistent problem in science, technology, engineering, mathematics and medicine (STEMM) organisations. This article seeks to better understand resistance to gender equality (GE) in this context with the aim of shedding light on the workplace-based impediments to equality and unlocking remediation opportunities.Design/methodology/approachThe article draws on in-depth interviews with 20 STEMM leaders to examine how they talk about the problem of gender inequality in the organisations they lead. Because resistance is rarely expressed directly, we adopt an in-depth, granular approach to examining what we call STEMM leaders’ “resistance talk” by decoding expressions of GE resistance that may appear, ostensibly, as something else.FindingsWe found various ideas, arguments and other discursive practices which function to legitimate or justify the status quo. These are both described by leaders in relation to what they are dealing with in their own organisations and expressed themselves. While similar “legitimating discourses” operate in other gender-segregated workplaces, our findings show how they manifest specifically in STEMM contexts.Originality/value Our results provide much-needed granular level evidence of the discursive tactics deployed to legitimate the status quo and obstruct progress toward GE in STEMM. This extends understanding of barriers to GE in STEMM and, importantly, highlights where attention might be directed to both counter resistance and harness potentially changing attitudes to expedite the necessary change required for GE in STEMM.

Generating Awareness Among Rural Individuals: Essential in Leading to Their Progression

In rural communities, individuals are overwhelmed by various types of social problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and gender inequality. These social problems give rise impediments within the course of putting into operation different types of tasks and activities. Hence, in order to lead to progression of rural individuals and communities, it is of utmost significance to generate awareness among rural individuals in terms of strategies that would be facilitating in leading to progression. The individuals, belonging to rural communities are required to be well-informed in terms of job duties and responsibilities within personal and professional lives. Furthermore, they are required to generate awareness in terms of methodologies and procedures, which are facilitating in doing well in one’s job duties and generating desired outcomes. As a consequence, they will render an important contribution in doing well in one’s job duties and achievement of desired goals. In this manner, one will contribute efficiently in bringing about improvements in their overall standards of living. Furthermore, one has to inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness. These are the key in coping with different types of dilemmas and challenging situations. Therefore, it is well-understood that generating awareness among rural individuals are essential in leading to their progression. The main concepts that are taken into account in this research paper are, objectives of generating awareness among rural individuals, areas in terms of which awareness is to be generated among rural individuals and benefits of generating awareness in terms of various areas.

Does raising awareness about inequality decrease support for school closures? An information treatment survey experiment during the COVID-19 pandemic

The increase in inequalities during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has been the topic of intense scholarly and public debate. School closures are one of the containment measures that have been debated most critically in this regard. What drives support for closures of schools and pre-school services (daycare/kindergarten) during a public health crisis such as the current COVID-19 pandemic? More specifically, does inequality awareness affect this support? Theoretically, we assume that providing information on current levels of inequality can change policy preferences, as it increases awareness of their consequences for inequality. Moreover, we assume that the strength of the association between information provision and policy support varies across individuals—depending on their exposure to these policies, and the political attitudes that they hold. To identify causal linkages between awareness of inequalities and support for school and daycare/kindergarten closures, we use a survey experiment with information treatment, in which we randomly assign information designed to prime the respondents to think about either education inequality, gender inequality, or both. The experiment, involving more than 3,000 respondents, was conducted in the spring of 2021 at the end of a prolonged lockdown in Germany when a new piece of legislation was enacted, enabling or restricting school reopenings based on local infection rates. Using Probit Regression models for dichotomous dependent variables, we show that raising awareness of education inequality and gender inequality via an information treatment is associated with decreasing support for preschool and primary school closures. We also find that past exposure to school-closure policies strengthens the effects of information treatments, whereas previous political attitudes do not moderate the association between information treatments and support for preschool and school closures.

Exploring effects of climate-smart agriculture innovations on women smallholders’ livelihoods in Ethiopia

AbstractStudies do not often provide evidence as to how innovations improve women smallholders’ livelihoods in male-headed households by analyzing women farmers in their own rights which is vital to develop and implement future gender responsive and transformative agricultural innovations. This study investigates if Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) – specifically conservation agriculture (CA) and small-scale irrigation schemes (SSIS) – improve women smallholders’ livelihoods. A concurrent mixed method was applied, and data was collected using survey, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). Descriptive and t- statistics were used to analyze quantitative data and thematic and narrative analysis methods to analyze qualitative data. Findings demonstrate that gender norms and intersectional identities and experiences of women together with the absence of gender equity and equality based structural works limit improvement in women’s livelihoods. While the use of CA did not change both men and women farmers livelihoods, SSIS improved men users’ financial and physical capitals. Hence, future CSA innovations should first identify the root causes of contextual gender inequalities and CSA innovations should be implemented based on women smallholders needs, experiences and realities. Building women smallholders’ livelihood capitals through off-farm income-generating activities and broadening the operational scale of CSA innovations for addressing strategic gender needs are desired. Explicitly, there is a need to move to a gender transformative approach (GTA) when implementing CSA innovations as GTA challenges and transforms gender norms and intersectional problems including unequal gendered access to livelihood capitals and decision-making power, unequal gender role distributions and gendered representations and implementation processes in economic policies.

The Power of Norms: Gender Equality Reforms in the Parliaments of Fiji and Samoa

Parliaments are increasingly defined as “gendered institutions,” with rules, norms, and practices that are often stubbornly resistant to gender equality initiatives. The gender sensitive parliaments’ global agenda has made substantial progress in both drawing attention to the gendered nature of parliaments and in spearheading gender equality reform. While a positive trend, there remains a significant disconnect between the (global) normative framework that sets out this agenda and the realization of gender equality in national (local) parliaments. In this article, we build on previous work that begins to unpack and test the process of global norm localization through “contextualization” and “contestation.” We select new sites to test these processes—Fiji and Samoa—where specific gender equality reforms have been implemented in the past 10 years, one a gender mainstreaming mandate for parliamentary committees and the other a parliamentary gender quota. The Pacific Islands region presents an important cultural context worthy of exploration: Parliaments are not only overwhelmingly male-dominated, but many are also derivative of hegemonic masculinist cultures evident in the Westminster tradition, albeit hybridized with local political traditions. We compare and contrast the process by which these reforms were developed and implemented in each country and examine the extent to which they can be considered effective mechanisms for addressing gender inequalities. We find that the extent to which these reforms are sustainable and transformative depends on local contexts, local actors, and locally derived solutions. Specifically, the culturally relevant process of contesting the gender quota in Samoa constitutionally, electorally, and through the courts has localised and thereby legitimised this globally endorsed reform. By contrast, gender mainstreaming in Fiji’s parliamentary committees has been little more than a “tick-a-box” exercise, having had limited engagement from the political elite under a relatively autocratic regime.

The View from Above and Below: Subjective Mobility and Explanations of Class, Race, and Gender Inequality

Abstract Popular explanations of inequality as the result of individual failings rather than structural processes are powerful cultural mechanisms that legitimize and reproduce inequality in the United States. How might individuals’ experiences of downward or upward mobility shape the explanations they give? We argue that perceived experiences of economic mobility may not only shape how Americans understand economic inequality but may also impact their beliefs about social inequalities more broadly. Using proportionally representative survey data of 1110 U.S. residents, we find that those who perceive that they currently occupy a lower economic class than when they were growing up (i.e., they experienced subjective downward mobility) were more likely than class-stable individuals to reject individualistic explanations of economic inequality and embrace structural ones. By contrast, the upwardly mobile were more likely to reject structural explanations. We find that mobility is similarly related to the likelihood of giving individualistic or structural explanations for race and gender inequality as well. Downward mobility is also associated with greater support of redistributive policies related to economic as well as gender and race inequality. These findings suggest that economic mobility may influence popular explanations of inequality and support for redistributive policy not only related to class inequality but for multiple axes of inequality.

How can child assistance policy supporting familisation be supported?

PurposeThis study examines the public’s perception of cash transfers for children in societies where children's welfare is often viewed as a private affair.Design/methodology/approachBased on 12 semi-structured interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) conducted in urban Jakarta, Indonesia, we explore mothers' perspectives on cash transfer programmes for children within low-income families during fieldwork in October 2023 and January 2024. In addition to the semi-structured interview, a FGD involving parents and other related stakeholders was conducted to increase data accuracy.FindingsOur findings reveal that cash transfers function as a “caregiving allowance” in Jakarta, allowing mothers to prioritize familial obligations while maintaining a reasonable standard of living. Contrary to the “de-familisation” focus observed in advanced welfare countries, these cash transfers for children reinforce traditional family labour division (familisation). Interestingly, despite reinforcing the familisation function, the initiative receives significant support. These results clearly highlight the influence of familisation-oriented welfare production, demonstrating a focus on enhancing family resilience in the design of child-related policies in Indonesia. Overall, these results make clear the visibility of traditional division of labour influences on welfare production, revealing a focus on the familialisation effect in the design of child-related policies in Indonesia. These findings reinforce the suitability of the term “familistic welfare regime” as an appropriate descriptor for Jakarta in particular and Indonesia in general.Originality/valueThis study enriches our understanding of the evolution of child-related assistance in the Global South through a defamilisation lens, shedding light on the complex interplay between gender inequalities and social policy formulation in these regions. Furthermore, it offers valuable insights into the ongoing discourse on welfare regime studies in Indonesia, suggesting that mainstream narratives of productivist transition are only partially validated. The insights garnered from this research open avenues for future studies across diverse contexts.

Women's Welfare, Stunting, and Access to Reproductive Rights: An Overview of The Situation in Indonesia

Stunting, as a global issue, has become a primary concern in Indonesia, with a declining trend in prevalence but still predominant indirect interventions for children under five years old. However, the impact of stunting on pregnant women or mothers of toddlers, who are the closest caregivers to stunted children, is often overlooked. Throughout the pregnancy and child-rearing periods, many reproductive rights of women remain unfulfilled, leading to suboptimal health conditions for both the mother and child. This research aims to describe sexual health rights, gender justice, and their relation to the stunting issue in Indonesia. The research method employed was a literature review accessing online databases, including Google Scholar, using keywords such as “stunting,” “women's rights,” “gender,” and “reproductive health rights.” Out of 700 articles identified, a reselection was conducted using the VoSViewer software to obtain literature relevant to the research theme. This article emphasizes that many health services in Indonesia are not optimal in fulfilling women's rights. Conversely, some health services are even challenging for women to access, indicating the government's negative contribution to fulfilling women's rights. Therefore, preventing stunting requires a broader and more integrative approach, including women's empowerment, reconstructing social norms regarding reproductive health, and strengthening health services that favor women. Consequently, the Indonesian government needs to intensify efforts to ensure the fulfillment of women's reproductive health rights as a strategic step in preventing stunting issues in the future.

A qualitative content analysis exploring gender representation in language textbooks published by Jammu and Kashmir board of school education

This paper examines gender representation in Jammu and Kashmir Board of School Education (JKBOSE) language textbooks. These books were revised and developed as per the guidelines of National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, which emphasizes on the elimination of gender inequality in education through the design and selection of learning tasks and pedagogic practices. The factors examined include the ratio of male-female appearances, titles of address for both sexes and the roles/activities assigned to males and females. To examine these factors, a method of qualitative content analysis was adopted. The study findings revealed that the revised textbooks lack relevance with the NCF (2005) guidelines and contribute towards the perpetuation of gender inequality. The bias in favor of males is still present in the core curriculum. Male's appearance dominates in written text and titles. Females are shown in their stereotypical gender roles and activities. This study shows concern towards the gender biased approach of curriculum designers and textbook writers; and recommends of producing gender fair educational material based on the guidelines of NCF (2005).

Lalon Fakir’s Philosophical Thoughts About Mass Education and Peace Education

Lalon Fakir passed away in 1890 now at Kushtia district in Bangladesh. His year, place and date of birth was unknown. He found untouchability in his village, disrespect towards gender inequality, inadequate class distribution. His dream was to create a religious-cast-creedless humanistic society. Men were all in all above these human created caste systems. Customs were created, surrounded and covered by men. These creeds are the main obstacle for continuing spiritual attachment towards God. He tried to arouse humanism through physical attachment in religion. He described his mind of women (beloved) through his various Boul songs. “Manush chara khepa re tui mul harabi… Manush Vojle sonar Manush hobi” or “Milon hobe koto dine …amar moner manuser sone”.Though his songs he portrayed question marks about social inequalities, religious creeds, customs, superstitions, selfishness and greediness.” Emon samaj kobe go srijon hobe…jedin hindu-muslim-buddha-christain jati- gotra nahi robe``. Religious Customs are the main part of society. He protested about these superstitions along with 10000 disciples toward Jamindar’s Civilization violations. Being a human Education is very necessary, with the help of a healthy companion and environment any one can increase purity, humanism, spiritual knowledge and wealth and also revive mass education and peace education logically.

Gender Stereotypes and Toxic Masculinity: Phenomenological Study of Pamulang University Students

In Indonesia, which is still considered a conservative country, feminism as a gender-based emancipatory movement has become an understanding that tends to be covered by the glitter of patriarchism. Resistance to feminist thought is quite massive because the majority of people consider it to be a Western epistemology that is not in harmony with Eastern cultural values. One of the main causes of gender inequality is society's lack of understanding of the differences in definitions between sex and gender. The majority still view these two terms as merely linguistic synonyms, even though conceptually they have significant differences. In an intimate academic environment with a tradition of thinking, the phenomenon of toxic masculinity is quite widely recognized by students. Like several students at Pamulang University, South Tangerang who feel they are victims of systemic toxic masculinity. In the initial research observations, the results of interviews showed that the phenomena of gender stereotypes and toxic masculinity experienced by Pamulang University students included several things, namely regarding individual aspects such as role, character, physique and sexual orientation.

Double-Edged Sword? The Impact of Online Misogyny on Female College Students' Digital Activism in the Post-COVID-19 Era.

Using original surveys to investigate how online gender-based harassment marginalizes or empowers female college students, we found increased exposure to misogyny polarizes digital participation. Women aware of gender inequality in Korea encountering online hate speech were more inclined to engage in online movements, unlike women who did not recognize such inequality. This highlights distinct opportunities in relation to digital activism, showing online hate speech can sometimes be a catalyst for online political participation. This study expands current research on digital protest, highlighting the political ramifications of empowering women in the critical context of their unequal democratic rights outside the West.

The association between gender equality and climate adaptation across the globe

IntroductionClimate change has a disproportionate impact on women in comparison to men, and women have a key role to play in climate adaptation. However, evidence is lacking on how gender inequalities may be associated with climate vulnerability and ability to respond at country level.MethodsThis ecological study investigated the association between climate adaptation, measured by the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative Country Index (ND-GAIN), and gender equality, measured by the Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI) developed by the World Economic Forum and the Gender Inequality Index (GII) developed by the United Nations. Simple linear regression was used to estimate the associations between the indices and their subdomains for 146 countries.ResultsThere was an approximately linear association between the GGGI and climate adaptation. Each 1% increase in gender equality was associated with a 0.6% increase in the ND-GAIN score (the slope was 0.59, with a 95% confidence interval [0.33 to 0.84]). This was driven by a negative association between gender equality and vulnerability (-0.41 [-0.62 to -0.20]), and a positive association between gender equality and readiness (0.77 [0.44 to 1.10]). The strongest associations between gender equality and climate adaptation were observed for the education domain of the GGGI. There was a strong negative linear association between the GII and climate adaptation, which explained most (86%) of the between-country variation in climate adaptation. Each 1% increase in gender inequality was associated with a 0.5% decrease in the ND-GAIN score (-0.54 [-0.57 to -0.50]). The association between gender inequality and readiness was stronger than the association with vulnerability (0.41 [0.37 to 0.44] for vulnerability versus − 0.67 [-0.72 to -0.61] for readiness).ConclusionsGender inequality, measured broadly across different domains of life, is associated with climate adaptation at country level, both in terms of vulnerability to impact and readiness to respond.

Counter-discourses to social inequalities and urban modernity: Subaltern women in post-2000s Chinese science fiction

ABSTRACT The issues of resurgent class and gender inequalities, rapid urbanization, and huge regional disparity were a notable focus of many post-2000s Chinese science fiction, which vividly created images of subaltern females. This paper looks at how contemporary Chinese sci-fi authors seek social justice by representing the experiences of various subaltern women within the specific genre of science fiction. It argues that the images of socially and culturally marginalized women were used as effective tools for questioning the intersectional social inequalities in contemporary China. The works discussed in this article all problematize the nature and influences of urban modernity by revealing the intersections, tensions, and contradictions between subaltern women and the classed, gendered modernization process. The sci-fi realist portrayal of subaltern agency and gender struggle also helps to generate powerful counter-discourses to urban modernity and technological utopia.

Meat Consumption as a Metaphor: Gender Differences in Margaret Atwood’s The Edible Woman

This paper studies the metaphorical representation of gender differences in meat consumption, a vital issue in vegetarian ecofeminism, masculine food studies, and feminist animal studies. In the context of Margaret Atwood’s The Edible Woman, the metaphor of meat eating resonates with Carol J. Adams’ concepts of the linked relation between women and edible animals and J Wyckoff’s linked oppression of sexism and speciesism. Using these concepts as a critical intersectional lens, the paper explores the various forms of gender oppression Marian is subject to, the power dynamics in Marian-Peter’s relationships, and the potential solutions presented by Atwood’s novel to resist such gender oppression that threatens Marian’s survival. The central question of this paper is how Marian’s identification with edible animals through Atwood’s use of meat consumption as a metaphor portrays the gender dynamics of oppression that threaten her relationship with Peter, thus leading to further gender imbalances in her society. The paper concludes that ensuring women are free to choose and speak up, regardless of societal expectations or gender, is crucial to eliminating some oppressive forms. However, it also argues that adopting a vegetarian lifestyle is not a practical solution to dismantling sexism or resisting other gender oppressions. It may perpetuate new forms of gender inequality and oppression

Inequalities in disability-free and disabling multimorbid life expectancy in Costa Rica, Mexico, and the United States.

To better understand variations in multimorbidity severity over time, we estimate disability-free and disabling multimorbid life expectancy (MMLE), comparing Costa Rica, Mexico, and the United States. We also assess MMLE inequalities by sex and education. Data come from the Costa Rican Study on Longevity and Healthy Aging (2005-2009), the Mexican Health and Aging Study (2012-2018), and the Health and Retirement Study (2004-2018). We apply an incidence-based multistate Markov approach to estimate disability-free and disabling MMLE and stratify models by sex and education to study within-country heterogeneity. Multimorbidity is defined as a count of two or more chronic diseases. Disability is defined using limitations in activities of daily living. Costa Ricans have the lowest MMLE, followed by Mexicans, then individuals from the US. Individuals from the US spend about twice as long with disability-free multimorbidity compared with individuals from Costa Rica or Mexico. Females generally have longer MMLE than males, with particularly stark differences in disabling MMLE. In the US, higher education was associated with longer disability-free MMLE and shorter disabling MMLE. We identified evidence for cumulative disadvantage in Mexico and the US, where sex differences in MMLE were larger among the lower educated. Substantial sex and educational inequalities in MMLE exist within and between these countries. Estimating disability-free and disabling MMLE reveals another layer of health inequality not captured when examining disability and multimorbidity separately. MMLE is a flexible population health measure that can be used to better understand the aging process across contexts.

Disciplining the Female Voice: A Foucauldian Analysis of the Lairam Isua Krista Baptist Church’s (LIKBK) Gender Dynamics

This study interrogates the Church's professed commitment to human rights and gender equality, with a specific focus on its treatment of women and women theologians, using the LIKBK Church as a case study. Despite women's significant contributions to the Church's sustenance and growth, their voices and participation remain marginalized. Employing Michel Foucault's theoretical framework, this research critically analyzes the LIKBK Church's role in perpetuating gender inequality, highlighting the ways in which its power structures and discourses silence and exclude women. By examining the contradictions between the Church's rhetoric and practices, this paper reveals the institution's complicity in sidelining women's agency and perpetuating gender-based oppression. The case study of LIKBK Church provides a nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics at play and offers insights into the ways in which religious institutions can perpetuate gender inequality.

Conversations in couple relationships: a trustful foundation when making future parenthood “real”

Sociologists often argue that communication in long-term couple relationships is the basis on which expectations, trust, and equality are created in contemporary society. However, what is the role of these everyday conversations in uncertain life situations such as expecting one’s first child? This article examines concerns reported by prospective Swedish parents in order to explain the role of communication to alleviate these. Concerns, related to the formation of new relationships with one’s partner, oneself, and one’s future child, are mitigated by referring to the couple’s “good” communication. In the present prenatal situation, the communication pattern (established in the past) seems to serve three functions in mitigating future concerns: (1) the communication generates a trust capital in the relationship, allowing the couple to venture into the uncertain future, (2) the communication makes social perceptions of family life “real” by constructing a common nomos that is internalized in the individual as an existential motto, and (3) the communication legitimizes family practices as democratic when referring to future plans as emerging from responsive and consensual dialogs. In the article it is emphasized that welfare policy needs to be based on an existential legitimacy, often developed in couple conversations, and particularly shaped in life situations characterized by change. However, the stability offered at the conversational micro level may simultaneously prevent macro level changes, a complexity that needs to be considered when developing a gender equality policy that is to resonate with people’s existential meaning making. With the aim of consensus, and the means of balancing conflicts, there is a risk that the conversation will consolidate the interests of the stronger party. In this way, the responsive conversations in long-term relationships may consolidate gender inequality and counteract the welfare policy goal of equalizing power relationships.