Gender Inequalities In Access Research Articles

Making Climate-Smart Cocoa Inclusive: Towards a Framework for Gender Transformation

ABSTRACT Climate-Smart Cocoa (CSC), a strategic offshoot of the wider Climate-Smart Agriculture, is gaining ground in Ghana, a cocoa export-dependent country. CSC is imperative, given the rapidly declining forests, prolonged periods of drought, pest and disease infestations, and fluctuating cocoa yields attributed to climate variability and change. Although many interventions are instituted to restore sustainable cocoa production, they are largely technicist because they do not pay attention to gender relations of production in the communities. Given the context of the embeddedness of gender inequality in access to resources, we used some CSC interventions in Ghana to reflect on the lingering questions of CSC production practices. We relied on CSC project documents, extant literature, farmer surveys and qualitative data to highlight the need for climate-smart agricultural approaches to be sensitive to structural and systemic issues that exclude female farmers. We argue that transforming norms that perpetuate unequal access to land, labour, input and extension services between men and women should be central to approaches that aim to promote sustainable and ecologically sound agricultural practices in cocoa production systems.

Observations on status and trends of agricultural extension and inequality in Uganda

The global pandemic has accentuated inequalities, with vulnerable populations in developing countries fairing worst. In rural sub-Saharan Africa, restrictions on mobility to limit the spread of COVID-19 negatively impacted access to extension services and inputs by farmers. In response, countries deployed digital technologies to meet some of these challenges in the context of existing income, gender and spatial inequalities and historic declines in funding for public extension. Focusing on Uganda, which had one of the longest and strictest lockdowns, the paper used panel datasets of farmers from 2005 to 2019/2020 and found persistent socio-economic and gender inequalities in access to extension. Data from rapid rural surveys from 2020 to 2021 and a review of recent literature suggest these inequalities increased during the pandemic. The paper then builds on the structure and reforms of the current extension system to assess the potential of the digital services and their added value given the inequalities observed. The paper finds that the ability of government-led, inclusive, digital extension services is limited unless investments in extension are increased. In light of long-term declines in funding for extension, future research should focus on the effectiveness of policies to encourage private sector-led digital extension efforts to strengthen the pro-poor nature of agricultural growth.

Gender health care inequalities in health crisis: when uncertainty can lead to inequality

BackgroundIn health crisis, inequalities in access to and use of health care services become more evident. The objective of this study is to analyse the existence and evolution of gender inequalities in access to and use of healthcare services in the context of the COVID-19 health crisis.MethodsRetrospective cohort study using data from all individuals with a confirmed COVID-19 infection from March 2020 to March 2022 in Aragón (Spain) (390,099 cases). Health care access and use was analysed by gender for the different pandemic waves. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to evaluate the effect of sex in health care. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition methods were performed to explain gender gaps observed.ResultsThe health care received throughout the COVID-19 pandemic differed between men and women. Women were admitted to hospital and intensive care units less frequently than men and their stays were shorter. Differences observed between men and women narrowed throughout the pandemic, but persisted even after adjusting for age, socioeconomic status, morbidity burden or the patient's place of residence. Differences in sociodemographic characteristics and morbidity burden could explain partially the gender inequalities found, mainly in the later phases of the pandemic, but not in the earlier waves.ConclusionsThere were gender inequalities in access to and use of health services during the COVID-19 pandemic. Inequalities were greater in the first waves of the pandemic, but did not disappear. Analysis of health crises must take into account an intersectional gender perspective to ensure equitable health care.

Advancing Gender Equality in Healthcare Leadership: Protocol to Co-Design and Evaluate a Leadership and Mentoring Intervention in Tanzania.

Women constitute almost two thirds of the health and social workforce. Yet, the proportion of women in decision-making positions remains significantly low leading to gender inequities in access to and appropriateness of healthcare. Several barriers which limit women's advancement to leadership positions have been documented and they generally constitute of gender stereotypes, discrimination and inhibiting systems; these hinderances are compounded by intersection with other social identities. Amelioration of the barriers has the potential to enhance women's participation in leadership and strengthen the existing health systems. This protocol describes a proposed study aimed at addressing the organisational and individual barriers to the advancement of women to leadership positions in the Tanzanian health sector, and to evaluate the influence on leadership competencies and career advancement actions of the female health workforce. The study utilises a gender transformative approach, co-design and implementation science in the development and integration of a leadership and mentorship intervention for women in the Tanzanian health context. The key steps in this research include quantifying the gender ratio in healthcare leadership; identifying the individual and organisational barriers to women's leadership; reviewing existing leadership, mentorship and career advancement interventions for women; recruiting programme participants for a leadership and mentorship programme; running a co-design workshop with programme participants and stakeholders; implementing a leadership and mentorship programme; and conducting a collaborative evaluation and lessons learnt. This research underscores the notion that progression towards gender equality in healthcare leadership is attained by fashioning a system that supports the advancement of women. We also argue that one of the pivotal indicators of progress towards the gender equality sustainable development goal is the number of women in senior and middle management positions, which we hope to further through this research.

Inequalities between Men and Women in Access to Energy Resources in the Western Savannah Region of Togo

Access to energy resources in most developing countries, and in Togo in particular, is marked by a low rate of access to electricity from the centralized national grid and high consumption of biomass as the main energy resource for cooking. This masks strong inequalities, particularly those linked to gender, to the disadvantage of female-headed households and female household members. The aim is to analyze gender inequalities in access to energy resources in households in the western Savanes Region of Togo. This work is based on a qualitative and quantitative methodological approach using documentary analysis, field surveys, interview guides and interviews. Descriptive and economic statistical tools were used to process the data collected. The results of the study show that access to modern cooking energy resources is difficult for female-headed households, 45.1% of which still use agricultural residues, compared with 4.2% for male-headed households. Furthermore, the rate of access to electricity from the national grid for female-headed households is only 21.7%, compared with 48.7% for male- headed households. These disparities, which are more pronounced in rural areas, vary from prefecture to prefecture.

Some Issues with Higher Education in Africa

This policy paper highlights several macro issues with African higher education, including inadequate funding, governance challenges, and a lack of access to digital infrastructure compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper also notes the historical and continuing impact of colonialism on Africa’s education systems and women’s challenges in accessing higher education. The author emphasizes the importance of investing in human capital and improving the quality of primary education to strengthen Africa’s human resource base and advance economic development. The paper calls for a paradigm shift in education policy and practice, underscoring pragmatism over ideology and focusing on building the capacity for sustained development through training in science, engineering, medicine, and agriculture. The author also highlights the need to address gender inequalities in access to higher education and diversify institutional models to meet the demands of the digital age. Ultimately, the paper calls for a concerted effort to improve funding, governance, and quality across African higher education institutions, leveraging partnerships and innovations to expand access and promote excellence.

Chinese women in society: Confucian past, ambiguous emancipation and access to higher education

The article aims to draw attention to educational inequalities concerning Chinese women. The text is dedicated to the following areas: Confucian conditions of social practices and beliefs, ambiguous emancipation in the post-imperial period, and contemporary problems of gender inequality in access to higher education.

Persistent Gender and Racial Hierarchies: Marriage Migration and Mixedness in Morocco from the French Protectorate to the Present

This article presents a historical and anthropological approach to mixed marriages in Morocco, tracking the continuities and changes between the French colonial period and contemporary experiences to see how attitudes towards mixed couples changed in Morocco throughout the French protectorate, in the post-independence period and the increasingly globalised world of the 21st century. This interdisciplinary approach combines historic data (primarily from a 1949 study into mixed marriages conducted by the colonial government as well as magazines, novels and memoirs) with 52 anthropological semi-structured interviews (conducted in Morocco between 2018 and 2022) with children of mixed couples and some of their parents.We examine first how the demographic make-up of mixed couples and where they choose to settle has shifted, looking at their gender split, their countries of origin, their occupations and where they met. This has diversified considerably throughout the 20th century: the individuals come from a much larger number of countries (no longer primarily Moroccan soldiers who returned from France with French women) and Moroccan women are now more likely to travel abroad. But gender still impacts mobility as the country of settlement is still often linked to the husband’s job. We then compare how in some cases legal and religious restraints have affected which mixed couples can marry. Although European men could marry Moroccan women, the French colonial authorities sought to ban European wives or partners of Moroccan men from entering Morocco because they believed these relationships would threaten the hierarchies of colonial rules. However, in contemporary Morocco migration is considerably easier for individuals from the Global North. Today the Moroccan family law (Mudawana) states that a foreign man has to convert to Islam if he wishes to marry a Moroccan Muslim woman. What is forbidden has changed, but women’s freedom remains subject to external pressures to maintain social cohesion. Finally, we examine the emotional motivations behind choosing mixed marriages, often overlooked by studies of migration, arguing that mixed marriage in Morocco has always shown a “desire for elsewhereness” and offered a space of freedom, a way to embrace new possibilities and turn away from certain social norms. In the 20th century, in the colonial and post-independence period, many Moroccan men used mixed marriage as a way to escape traditional pressures to pay a bride price (sdaq) to a Moroccan woman’s family. Some Moroccan men also expressed colonialist ideas that European women were more “evolved” and would make better partners than Moroccan women as they were more educated because of gender inequalities in access to education. This has changed due to Moroccan women’s improved access to education. But emotions are still at the heart of these experiences of intimacy across racial, national and religious borders. Contemporary and historical couples see mixedness as imbued with new opportunities to express their desire for change, for a new way of living and for creativity. Mixed marriages provide a change to re-evaluate customs and lifestyles, but these are also deeply intimate relationships born out of emotional attachment. This article reminds readers that marriage migration is, at heart, a migration for love. This love, and the feeling of possibility it offers, can be considered a threat to existing power structures. We argue that in post-independence Morocco, mixed marriages are no longer considered a threat to political power but that they still reveal the existence of persistent racial and gender symbolic boundaries. Indeed, social perception of mixed couples has shifted from a fear of neo-imperialism to a feeling of opportunities in a globalized world, but gender and racial hierarchies still prevail as significant symbolic boundaries that shape mixed couples and attitudes towards them.

Do parental resources reduce the gender gap in math for primary school-going children? Evidence from India

ABSTRACT While a large body of evidence suggests that gender inequality in access to primary education has reduced significantly in India, there has been relatively little research on gender gap in learning outcomes, particularly math scores. Using a nationally representative household dataset, this study examines the role of parental resources in explaining gender gap in math scores for primary school-going children in India. We find that male children have significantly higher math scores than their female counterparts. However, this difference decreases with the increase in parental education and household assets. We also find that family investment in education explains a large part of gender gap in math. Overall, our findings provide a new understanding of gender gap in math scores in India. It has important policy implications for minimising gender gap in academic achievement to make school education more gender-inclusive.

The rise of ‘smart’ solutions in Africa: a review of the socio-environmental cost of the transportation and employment benefits of ride-hailing technology in Ghana

Governments in Africa are licensing major global ride-hailing firms to launch operations in the continent. This is often presented as a refreshing development for the continent to leverage technology to address its twin problems of inefficient urban transport and rising youth unemployment. Interviews with ride-hailing adopters (drivers, riders, and car owners) and researchers in Ghana suggest, however, that whereas the technology is driving up the standards of road transport experience, the benefits are accessible to a select few (largely, the younger, highly educated and relatively high income-earning class). The lopsided power relations underlying the ride-hailing industry have also meant that the economic opportunities it avails disproportionately benefit a few powerful players (e.g. ride-hailing firms and car owners) while stimulating ‘turf wars’ among online and traditional taxi drivers; deepening existing gender inequalities in access to income-earning opportunities in the commercial passenger transport sector; encouraging unhealthy driving practices, shifts from shared public transport, and inundation of the roads with more private cars. While it will be imprecise to say that the private gains of ride-hailing outstrip the public costs and, therefore, the technology is detrimental to Ghana’s development, the considered evidence raises the need for sustained scrutiny of the hailing of technological interventions as though they are the magic bullets for socio-economic transformation in Africa. Overall, the paper argues that dismantling the power structures underlying Africa’s urban challenges will require more than splashing ‘smart’ apps and other tech wizardries around. Indeed, the lessons from Ghana’s ride-hailing industry suggest that such exclusively technical solutions could easily take root and pattern after existing strictures of unjust power structures in ways that could exacerbate the social and environmental problems they are supposed to address.

Gender, Empowerment and Food Security Status of Households in Nigeria

Gender inequality in access to productive and economic resources has been a topical issue in sub-Saharan Africa. The restrictive access to resources, assets and decision making by women has been linked to food insecurity. Using a large cross-sectional dataset from the 2018/2019 Living Standard Measurement Survey, this paper examines the interrelationship among gender, empowerment and households’ food security status in Nigeria. The analytical techniques adopted include the empowerment index, dietary diversity score and the Tobit and the ordered probit regression models. The findings suggest that the level of empowerment is generally low in Nigeria (21.63%) but much worse among the female gender (11.78%). The results also show that female gender and rural and North West residents were mostly in the food insecure and disempowered group. The study concludes that empowerment and food policy measures that would enhance access and control of productive and economic resources by the female gender and rural and North West residents should be formulated to ensure the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of ending hunger and promoting gender equality.

Postcolonial masculinity and access to basic education in Nigeria

This paper looks at gender inequalities in access to education and analyses of the complex entanglements of masculinity and post coloniality on retention by empirically drawing on the findings of 30 interviews with those who had dropped out of basic education. We discuss how the masculinities affected educational decision making and choices from a post-colonial feminist perspective in three major ethno-cultural groups in Nigeria. We argue that a key distinguishing factor between precolonial and postcolonial masculinity lies in the colonial transformation and impact and highlight that the history of masculinities in Africa is marked by colonial conquests, alterations, and destabilisation of the existing power relation structures and weakening of the socio-political power of the women.

IMPACT OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION ON ECONOMIC ASSET ACCUMULATION OF SMALLHOLDER RICE FARMERS PARTICIPATING IN USAID MARKETS II PROGRAMME IN NIGERIA’S KANO STATE

Women's control of assets is linked to favorable development outcomes at the household and individual levels, which is crucial for poverty alleviation. The goal of this study was to give agricultural development programs advice on how to incorporate gender and assets into intervention design, implementation and assessment. The research empirically used Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition technique to isolate the impact of gender discrimination on economic asset acquisition among USAID MARKETS II rice farmers in Nigeria’s Kano State. A cross-sectional data of 2018 rice cropping season obtained through a structured questionnaire complemented with interview schedule using easy cost-route approach from 189 participating farmers selected through a multistage sampling technique. The collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. From the empirical evidences it was established that gender differential had both effect and impact on economic capital acquisition of the two gender groups with a disadvantage or negative consequence on the women farmers. Besides, in isolating the impact of the gender differential, it was observed that gender discrimination due to gender inequality in access and control to productive resources majorly accounts for the gap in the economic capital acquisition, thus affected women economic capital accumulation. Thus, the study suggests a mechanism of gender budget mainstreaming in order to establish gender equality and equity, thereby enhancing the growth and development of the farm economy and the aggregate economy of the state in particular and the nation in general.

Género y participación social en salud desde la experiencia ciudadana en El Salvador

The process of social participation in the health field is linked to the political history, economic and social changes of each society. The relationship between the State and the exercise of citizenship are mediated by social determinants, with implications for the social construction of gender-based inequalities. The objective of the study is to characterize, with a gender perspective, the process of social participation from the experience and perspective of citizens. The study was carried out in 2015 and located in El Salvador, Central America. The study is a qualitative exploratory study conducted in 9 municipalities and involves male and female social leaders from the communities of two health networks: Corinto and Perquín, of the Department of Morazán in El Salvador, Central America. The sample included 29 semi-structured interviews. Results of the study include social leader's perceptions and experiences, revels gender inequalities in access, social conditions, and forms of participation available for men and women also shows that traditional gender roles are reproduced and reinforced. However, there are outstanding female leaderships associated with political and gender training. Likewise, difficulties are exposed in maintaining autonomy and horizontal leadership. The study concluded that Gender Equity in mechanisms and opportunities to participate need to be reviewed, the non-governmental organizations have played a positive role in the empowerment and support of women for their involvement facilitating gender education and financial support.

Who can work and study from home in Pakistan: Evidence from a 2018–19 nationwide household survey

Abstract In this article, we examine the feasibility of working and studying from home in Pakistan. We take advantage of the recently released 2018–19 Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) Survey. PSLM is a nationally representative household survey with extensive information on employment outcomes, children’s educational attainment, as well as internet and computer access and prior usage information. Modifying Dingel and Neiman [2020]’s approach, we define the feasibility of jobs that can be done from home based on the percentage of tasks that can be switched online and accounting for internet accessibility. We also investigate the possibilities for students to study from home via TV or internet. We find that only 10% of jobs in Pakistan can be done from home; however, megacities have much higher rates and rural areas have lower rates. In addition, many of Pakistan’s male workers are in low-skill, low-paying service industries and cannot work from home, while occupations with a higher female employment share have a relatively higher work-from-home share de-spite lower percentage of prior internet use. Our results also highlight the homeschooling challenges Pakistan’s students face given the low rates of television and internet access. The government’s outreach effort through the new Teleschool TV channel could help alleviate pre-existing gender inequalities in access to education.

GENDER INEQUALITY IN ACCESS TO RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY IN PEDIATRIC POPULATION: EXPERIENCE FROM A SINGLE CENTER

Introduction: Gender inequality in access to dialysis facility and renal transplantation is extensively reviewed amongst adult patients. However, less is known about extent of gender inequality among pediatric CKD population. Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective data analysis of pediatric kidney transplants performed at single center from Gujarat from 2005 to 2019. Data was analyzed to look for gender inequality among donors and recipients. Further, children with ESRD on dialysis at center were observed for gender differences. We also reviewed gender difference among these ESRD patients for their process of transplantation. Results: During 2005 to 2019, 412 pediatric transplants were performed. Out of these, 329 (79.85%) were live renal transplants and 83 (20.14%) were deceased donor organ transplants. Remarkable gender difference was seen with boys (323, 78.4%) being majority of recipients versus girls (89, 21.6%). Also, among live donors, females have been major donors (237, 72%). However, among 83 cadaver donors, 53 (63.8%) were male. Currently, total 326 patients are on dialysis. Out of 326 ESRD patients on dialysis,207 (63%) are boys as compared to 119(37%) girls. Among these 326 patients 10 are under live related transplant work up (7 male, 3 female). Out of 326 patients, 34 are registered under state cadaver organ donor program, amongst them 22 (64%) are boys. Conclusion: Gender inequality in access to renal replacement therapy does exist. Girls have lower chances of receiving dialysis and transplantation than boys, but female constitute majority of living kidney donors. However, reasons for this gender difference for treatment choices is not very well studied, but sociocultural influences and socioeconomic factors are possible causes. Greater attention is necessary to improve the outcome of pediatric female patients with ESRD.

Higher education expansion and inequality in educational opportunities in China

In line with global trends, China experienced a rapid expansion in its higher education system in the second half of the twentieth century, and has seen especially large growth since the early 2000s. The expansion of higher education means an increase in the total quantity of educational opportunities. Although it is expected that education expansion can lead to a more equalized distribution of educational opportunities, based on the extant research in China, there is currently no consensus regarding the impact of higher education expansion on equality in educational opportunity. Moreover, only a few researchers have examined the difference in its impact between elite and non-elite higher education. By analyzing the data from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2015, this study aims to investigate the relationship between higher education expansion and inequalities in educational opportunities in the context of China and to analyze the difference in the influence of this expansion between elite and non-elite higher education. The findings of this study show that, except for gender disparity, inequalities affected by household registration, family economic status, and parental education level were not ameliorated after expansion. In addition, the decrease in gender inequality in access to higher education was greater in elite than non-elite higher education. Possible reasons and policy implications are given based on the data analysis in this paper.

The Effect of Gender and Gender Pairing on Bargaining: Evidence from an Artefactual Field Experiment

Men and women negotiate differently, which might create gender inequality in access to resources as well as efficiency losses due to disagreement. We study the role of gender and gender pairing in bilateral bargaining, using a lab-in-the-field experiment in which pairs of participants bargain over the division of a fixed amount of resources. We vary the gender composition of the bargaining pairs as well as the disclosure of the participants' identities. We find gender differences in earnings, agreement and demands, but only when the identities are disclosed. Women in same-gender pairs obtain higher earnings than men and women in mixed-gender pairs. This is the result of the lower likelihood of disagreement among women-only pairs. Women leave more on the bargaining table, conditional on their beliefs, which contributes to the lower disagreement and higher earnings among women-only pairs.

The Effect of Gender and Gender Pairing on Bargaining: Evidence from an Artefactual Field Experiment

Men and women negotiate differently, which might create gender inequality in access to resources as well as efficiency losses due to disagreement. We study the role of gender and gender pairing in bilateral bargaining, using a lab-in-the-field experiment in which pairs of participants bargain over the division of a fixed amount of resources. We vary the gender composition of the bargaining pairs as well as the disclosure of the participants' identities. We find gender differences in earnings, agreement and demands, but only when the identities are disclosed. Women in same-gender pairs obtain higher earnings than men and women in mixed-gender pairs. This is the result of the lower likelihood of disagreement among women-only pairs. Women leave more on the bargaining table, conditional on their beliefs, which contributes to the lower disagreement and higher earnings among women-only pairs.

Gender in Uganda’s tertiary educational distribution

Abstract Gender is a major factor in Uganda’s higher education system. This manuscript accounts for the conundrum of gender inequality in the system through a comparative multi group analysis of Gender Parity Index in 10 colleges and 158 fields of study. From a sample of 101 ​504 students, admitted in five public universities, from 112 districts, from 2009 to 2017, the study found that even though women in Uganda now participate in higher education in much greater numbers, gender realities on the ground have not changed. In fact, gender inequality in access to higher education has become much more nuanced and complex than was anticipated; half the population of women was found in one of ten colleges; in eight other colleges, men outnumbered women by a ratio of 8:2. Uganda’s higher education system was stereotypic of a system that reinforces the images of women in one field and that of men in another. The study calls for a differentiated approach to policy making, to change the history, customs and traditions of college admission, which remains strongly in favor of men, in order to address the conundrum of gender inequality in Uganda’s higher education system.