Gender Income Research Articles

Does greater filial piety bring more gender income advantages? Exploring the influence of traditional Chinese filial piety on the gender wage gap

PurposeBased on traditional Chinese filial piety, this article examines the impacts and mechanisms of the two-dimensional filial piety concept “Qinqin – Zunzun” on gender wages in China via China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) conducted in 2014 and 2018.Design/methodology/approachThis article construct regression models to examine the relationship between filial piety concepts and wages. Also, it uses unconditional quantile regression and decomposition to explore the impact of filial piety concepts on the wage gap.FindingsIt is found that: (1) The effects of two-dimensional filial piety are heterogeneous in terms of gender. Specifically, authoritarian filial piety significantly suppresses individual wages and has a stronger suppressive effect on women’s wages, whereas affinity filial piety significantly enhances individual wages without gender heterogeneity; (2) Parents' time support in the intergenerational exchange model is a crucial mechanism by which filial piety affects wages, exhibiting significant gender heterogeneity; (3) Regarding wage distribution, authoritarian filial piety mainly widens the gender income gap in the low and middle income-groups, while affinity filial piety narrows the gender wage gap by “raising the floor”, with its converging effect being most significant in the middle and high-income groups. This article deepens the understanding of the gender wage gap and intergenerational income mobility, providing policy references for better utilizing the social governance function of culture.Originality/valueThe article deepens the understanding and mechanisms of the gender wage gap and inter-generational income mobility, providing policy reference for better utilizing the social governance function of culture.

Gender income differences among general practitioners with compulsory services in early career stage in underdeveloped areas: evidence from a prospective cohort study in China

BackgroundGender equality and the gender income gap in medicine are long-standing global problems. Although gender-related differences have been widely studied in developed countries, they remain unclear in underdeveloped regions. In 2010, China initiated a national compulsory service program (CSP) to train qualified general practitioners in rural and remote areas. This study aimed to evaluate gender income differences for early career CSP and non-CSP (NCSP) graduates in underdeveloped areas.MethodsA cohort study was conducted with 3620 CSP and NCSP graduates from four medical universities in Central and Western China. Baseline surveys and six follow-up surveys were conducted between 2015 and 2022. Incomes, including monthly mean income and proportion of performance-based income, were measured as the key outcome variables. Multivariate linear regression models were used to identify the gender income gap.ResultsNCSP graduates had higher average monthly incomes than CSP graduates. In the seventh year after graduation, the average monthly income for NCSP graduates was 7859 CNY while was 5379 CNY for CSP graduates. After controlling for demographic characteristics, the gender monthly income gap for CSP graduates was expanded from the fourth year (3.0%) to the sixth year (5.9%) after graduation, and that for NCSP graduates was expanded from the fifth year (11.9%) to the seventh year (16.3%) after graduation. Regarding performance-based income, it was 58.9% for NCSP graduates and 45.8% for CSP graduates in the seventh year after graduation. After controlling for performance-based income proportion, the gender income gap was reduced from 5.9 to 4.0% in the sixth year after graduation for CSP graduates, and from 16.3 to 14.4% for NCSP graduates in the seventh year after graduation.ConclusionAn extensive and ever-increasing gender income gap exists among young doctors in the early stages of their careers in underdeveloped areas of China. The high proportion of performance-based income among men is one of the main explanations for the observed difference. A more explicit compensation system must be established to enhance support for female health workers.

Income gap between male and female psychiatric nurses in China: A national survey.

To investigate gender differences in the actual and expected income among psychiatric nurses in China. Although studies have shown that male nurses earn more than female nurses in other countries, there are no published data regarding gender income differences among psychiatric nurses in China. We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 41 representative psychiatric hospitals in China. Demographic, income, and job-related data were analyzed using the inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) based on the propensity score. The sample included 9256 psychiatric nurses, and nearly four-fifths (79.3%) were female. Males earned slightly higher average monthly incomes than female nurses, while initial analysis showed no significant overall gender income difference (p>0.05). Notably, most participants (92.5%) desired an income increase of at least 10%, with over half (56.2%) expressing significant dissatisfaction with their current income. After adjustment using propensity score combined with IPTW, females in the junior and mid-level groups had significantly lower income than their male counterparts (all p<0.01), despite having different night shift patterns. However, there were no significant gender differences in actual or expected income among senior-level psychiatric nurses (p>0.05). A majority of psychiatric nurses in China express dissatisfaction with their current incomes and expect higher incomes. Male nurses earned significantly more than female nurses in the junior and mid-level professional groups, potentially due to their differences in night shifts. Policymakers and hospital administrators should optimize the income structures of nurses and develop targeted policies to address the gender income gap. Improving nurse income has the potential to enhance motivation and satisfaction within the profession.

Does environmental pollution reduce residents’ income? Evidence from CFPS in China

Understanding the relationship between environmental pollution and residents’ income is extremely important for promoting sustained progress and high-quality economic growth. This research examines the impact, mechanism, and heterogeneity of environmental contamination on residents’ earnings by fusing the micro data from China Family Panel Survey with the macro data of government statistics. The results reveal that environmental degradation has a significantly negative impact on residents’ individual income. Further research on the intermediary mechanism finds that environmental pollution plays a harmful role in residents’ income by reducing residents’ subjective well-being and labor employment. Besides, the income effect of environmental pollution is significantly heterogeneous among different regions and differentiated groups. The deteriorating environmental quality widens urban–rural income gap and increases wage inequality of inhabitants in eastern, central, and western regions of China. The gender income gap and the income disparity between different income brackets also expand with environmental deterioration. These findings not only prove that long-term development at the cost of the ecological environment is undesirable, but also demonstrate the important role of the improvement of ecological environmental quality in promoting human well-being.

The shifting motherhood penalty and fatherhood premium in China's gig economy: Impact of parental status on income changes

The fatherhood premium and motherhood penalty are key concepts in the study of gender income gaps. Using an ordinary least squares model, influencing mechanism analysis and Oaxaca‐Blinder decomposition, we examine changes in Chinese gig workers’ income by gender, before and after parenthood. The results indicate that, in the Chinese gig economy, the motherhood penalty is vanishing, while the fatherhood premium has evolved into a fatherhood penalty owing to work pressure and the gender segregation of occupations in the gig economy, requiring men to balance their time and energy between work and childcare in a way that is not as prevalent in other sectors.

Digitization and Gender Income Gap Among Rural Migrants: Evidence from China

This article explores the role of digitization in the gender wage gap among rural migrants in China. With the rapid development of the digital economy, rural migrant workers have become an important part of society. Based on data source from National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, we find that although digitization increases the overall income of rural migrant workers, it benefits males more than females, and the gender income gap among rural migrants is widening. According to our estimates, digitization significantly improves the mobility of females and requires more male physical workers than females, thus widening the gender income gap. Heterogeneity analysis shows that there are significant differences in the effect of digitization among those who have different education levels, marital status, ages, and the economic levels of the cities they have migrated to. The gender income gap widens when rural migrants have junior or high school education, are married, are young, and have migrated to cities with high economic development. Our findings highlight the effects of digitization across special social groups, providing micro-evidence of the digital economy's impact on the gender income gap and offering useful references for implementing digital strategies and public policies to social equity and sustainable development.

Income Inequality by Gender in Malaysia

Objective - Studies related to the distribution of income are very important for national development as they are related to efforts to reduce the gender earnings disparity. Women have overcome many challenges within the labour market, but gender income differentials persist in Malaysia. Methodology/Technique —Reducing gender income differentials is one ingredient for sustained economic growth. This article examines the gender income distribution in several submarkets within the Malaysian labour market and discusses some initiatives to reduce income disparities therein. The data used here were drawn from the Department of Statistics and cover the 10-year period from 2010 to 2019. Findings - Data show evidence that there exists gender earning disparity in Malaysia along the lines of education, specifically tertiary education, and ethnicity, specifically in Indian and Chinese communities. Novelty - This paper proposed a few policy recommendations with the hope that they will aid in the effort of reducing gender income differentials, which are a critical share of the country's human capital development. Type of Paper: Empirical JEL Classification: M41. M49, Keywords: Differentials, Gender, Income, Labour, Malaysia. Reference to this paper should be referred to as follows: Cheong, J.Q; Narayanan, S. (2024). Income Inequality by Gender in Malaysia, Acc. Fin. Review, 8(4), 01 – 10. https://doi.org/10.35609/afr.2024.8.4(1)

An Empirical Social Vulnerability Map for Flood Risk Assessment at Global Scale (“GlobE‐SoVI”)

AbstractFatalities caused by natural hazards are driven not only by population exposure, but also by their vulnerability to these events, determined by intersecting characteristics such as education, age and income. Empirical evidence of the drivers of social vulnerability, however, is limited due to a lack of relevant data, in particular on a global scale. Consequently, existing global‐scale risk assessments rarely account for social vulnerability. To address this gap, we estimate regression models that predict fatalities caused by past flooding events (n = 913) based on potential social vulnerability drivers. Analyzing 47 variables calculated from publicly available spatial data sets, we establish five statistically significant vulnerability variables: mean years of schooling; share of elderly; gender income gap; rural settlements; and walking time to nearest healthcare facility. We use the regression coefficients as weights to calculate the “Global‐Empirical Social Vulnerability Index (GlobE‐SoVI)” at a spatial resolution of ∼1 km. We find distinct spatial patterns of vulnerability within and across countries, with low GlobE‐SoVI scores (i.e., 1–2) in for example, Northern America, northern Europe, and Australia; and high scores (i.e., 9–10) in for example, northern Africa, the Middle East, and southern Asia. Globally, education has the highest relative contribution to vulnerability (roughly 58%), acting as a driver that reduces vulnerability; all other drivers increase vulnerability, with the gender income gap contributing ∼24% and the elderly another 11%. Due to its empirical foundation, the GlobE‐SoVI advances our understanding of social vulnerability drivers at global scale and can be used for global (flood) risk assessments.

The Role of Fiscal Policy in Reducing Gender Income Inequality

The Role of Fiscal Policy in Reducing Gender Income Inequality

İSTANBUL İŞ PIYASASINDA TOPLUMSAL CINSIYET EŞITLIĞI PERFORMANSININ DEĞERLENDIRILMESI

OBJECTIVES: The study aims to analyze the Istanbul labor market from a gender equality perspective and to provide relevant recommendations. METHODS: To achieve results, this research has applied a systematic approach. Prisma Guidelines are followed to report the research findings. This paper selected 13 studies that are relevant to the research questions. Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) was also employed in this research. RESULTS: The research systematized the factors that determine gender inequality in the Istanbul labor market, including religious aspects and cultural pattern, access to education for women, differentiation in educational levels, lack of work-life balance, and lack of necessary professional skills in women. It was shown that historically, the gender income gap was mostly explained by differences in education and occupational choice. The conducted research forms the range of issues of individual motivational professional preferences of women’s employment while maintaining a stable trend of maximally reducing gender segregation to a conditional threshold level of gender professional preferences. CONCLUSIONS: This paper would serve policymakers in Turkey in identifying the potential gender gaps and their underlying causes in the labor market and help in formulating laws and policies that can enhance gender equality in the Istanbul labor market. NOVELTY/ORIGINALITY: The paper provided a novel approach to a comprehensive understanding of gender equality in the Istanbul labor market. This study is the first research that has employed a systematic research approach along with the integration of PRISMA guidelines and CASP for investigating gender equality in the Istanbul labor market. Keywords: career development, gender equality, labor market, wage gap.

Impact of Skill Development Programmes for Financial Empowerment of Women

This study delves into the profound impact of skill development programs on the financial empowerment of women in Andhra Pradesh, India. With a comprehensive analysis of these programs, this research uncovers significant findings that underscore the transformative potential of such initiatives in the context of gender empowerment and economic growth. The study reveals that skill development programs have a substantial and positive effect on women's financial empowerment. Women who participate in these programs experience a notable increase in their income levels. This increase is observed across various skill domains, leading to a reduction in gender income disparities. The programs also create enhanced employment opportunities for women. Participants often venture into industries that were traditionally male-dominated, securing stable employment and even exploring entrepreneurial ventures. Perhaps one of the most significant findings is the development of economic independence among women who complete skill development programs. This newfound independence is marked by a decreased reliance on family members or partners for financial support. Participants display increased confidence in managing their finances and accumulating assets, marking a shift towards greater financial autonomy. Skill development also plays a crucial role in educational advancement. Women who engage in these programs are more likely to invest in further education and skill upgradation. This not only enhances their employability but also empowers them with knowledge and confidence to participate in decision-making processes within their households and communities. Beyond the economic and educational dimensions, skill development programs foster social agency among women. Participants experience a heightened sense of empowerment, challenging traditional gender roles and becoming active contributors to their families and communities. These findings underscore the pivotal role of skill development programs in not only boosting individual financial empowerment but also fostering economic growth, gender equality, and social progress in Andhra Pradesh.

The Impact Mechanism of Work Experience on the Income of Flexible Workers: Evidence from China

Numerous workers have adopted the flexible working approach due to its accommodating and job-sharing features, which play a key role in easing the employment pressure and maintaining socio-economic sustainability in China. This paper will study the impact of work experience on the income of flexible workers and the characteristics of impact mechanism. We use micro survey data from CFPS2020 to analyze flexible workers in China. This study found that, firstly, while the feature of flexible employment may be very different from formal employment, its relationship with work experience and income is as significantly correlated as it is for formal employment with a rise–fall, inverted U-shaped trend, but the return on work experience is lower than the employment level in the labor market. Secondly, there is an income gap between genders, especially in physical labor-intensive forms of flexible work; women can gradually narrow the gender income gap through continuous learning. Thirdly, the return on work experience in the older age group is lower than that in the youth group of flexible workers, and this may be due to the dynamic evolution of the elimination of existing work experience and the accumulation of new work experience. Fourthly, in contrast with the findings of the labor market as a whole, the trend of work experience return in flexible employment is reversed; the low-income group’s return rate of work experience is higher than that of the high-income group, and it can be seen that flexible employment is conducive to the development of new and young workers.

The emergence of procyclical fertility: The role of breadwinner women

Fertility in the US exhibits an increasingly more procyclical pattern. We argue that women’s breadwinner status is behind procyclical and lower fertility: (i) women’s relative income in the family has increased over time; and (ii) women are more likely to work in relatively stable and countercyclical industries whereas men tend to work in volatile and procyclical industries. This creates a countercyclical gender income gap as women become breadwinners in recessions, producing an insurance effect of women’s income. Our quantitative framework shows that rising breadwinner status of women can explain both the emergence of procyclical fertility and the decline in fertility rate in the second half of the 20th century.

Tax-benefit systems and the gender gap in income

AbstractThe gender wage gap and the gender work gap are sizable, persistent and well documented for many countries. The result of the gender wage and gender work gap combined is an income gap between men and women. A small literature has begun to examine how the tax-benefit system contributes to closing gender income gaps by redistributing between men and women. In this paper, we study the effect of tax-benefit policy on gender differences in income in the EU27 countries and the UK. We use microsimulation models linked to survey data to estimate gender gaps in market income (before taxes and transfers) and disposable income (after taxes and transfers) for each country. We then decompose the difference between the gender gap in market income and the gender gap in disposable income into the relative contribution of taxes and benefits in each country. We also isolate the relative contributions of the gender wage gap and the gender work gap to the overall gap in income between men and women in two of these countries.

How does the Economic Development Level Cause Difference in the Gender Income Gap: Comparative Political-Economic Research Based on the USA and India

Since the middle of the 1970s, the variance of the global GDP per capita in the logarithm of PPP prices has been declining. It grew from 1960 to 1968. Later, the growth in intra-country inequality was more than countered by the convergence of income between nations. Two-thirds of the measures of inequality in the world are between nations, three tenths are between families within nations, and twenty percent are variations in gender-based educational outcomes between nations. By contrasting a few situations, this essay seeks to clarify the connection between economic growth and the gender wage gap. Comparing the size of the gender pay gap in nations with various levels of economic development using the USA and India as examples. Then, from three aspects, education, culture, and feminism, and specific policies for reducing the gender income gap, how the variance of economic development level leads to the difference in the gender income gap will be explained and evaluated.

Does the One-Child Policy Improve Chinese Human Capital? A Propensity Score Matching Analysis

This research examined the impact of the One-Child Policy (OCP) on Chinese human capital per capita. To the best of this author’s knowledge, this research is the first to explore the effect of the OCP on Chinese human capital by using propensity score matching (PSM). This research also examined the relationship between the gender difference in human capital per capita with the implementation of the OCP. It was found that the OCP has a positive effect not only on improving Chinese human capital, but also on decreasing gender difference in human capital. These results confirm the existence of the Becker quality–quantity trade-off. Furthermore, the marginal effect of the OCP on pre-tax and post-tax income was also calculated using the PSM method. The results show that the OCP improved the average income of females and thus decreased the gender income difference, although it also has a low effect on the GDP per capita of males and the overall sample.

Asian Americans and Income Inequality: Disparities Between and Within Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Groups

Asian Americans nearing economic parity with White individuals is unique, particularly given the historical and contemporary disadvantaged position of other racial minorities in the U.S. labor market. While there is growing literature exploring how Asian Americans are reshaping the labor force, most of these studies categorize them as a homogenous group, failing to recognize social, cultural, and historical diversities within the community. Using the Current Population Survey, we investigate income disparity trends across ethnic groups and gender. Results show that Asian American men and women have high income levels compared to other racial minority groups. However, these perceived advantages reinforce racial stereotypes and mask income variations within these groups and across genders. We find a widening gender income gap over recent years for Asian ethnic groups, highlighting how race and gender interact to shape their labor-market experiences. We conclude by discussing the implications for future studies in labor-market research.

Eliciting the gender income influences on household’s food security in west africa

Women economic potential can be used to reduce household’s food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa. This study analyzed the influence of gender on household’s food security through the household’s income in North-Benin. We selected 300 households using a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected using a questionnaire during direct interviews. Data included the households’ socioeconomic characteristics, their experiences-based Food Insecurity Scale, women and men income level. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and generalized structural equation modeling. The findings show that women-headed households (WHH) were less exposed to food insecurity than men-headed households (MHH). Moreover, the increasing of women income level reduced the exposure of households to food insecurity, because the increase in the income level of women stimulated the men income level. Women income also contributed more to household food expenses than men income. However, the increasing of men income level exposed the households to food insecurity. These results highlight the importance of women's empowerment in addressing household food insecurity in African’s developing countries. The findings also help policy makers to improve their knowledge for better decision making on household food security.

Gender inequality in Russia: Axial institutions and agency

This research measures gender inequality in Russia in axial institutions: household and labor markets, education and science, state and corporate governance and relates it to agency, measured on the World Values Survey. Russian women are actively engaged in labor markets, including healthcare, science and other fields, which are widely viewed as male, as a legacy of the Soviet era. The gender income and the wage gap stem from the double burden and “maternity fee.” Demographic policy reinforces women’s role as prime caregivers, multiplies “maternity fee” and increases gender inequality, which consequently lowers the birth rate. Women are highly educated; however, education does not necessarily serve women’s career and success due to patriarchal values in the hidden curriculum. Many women are engaged in science, accounting for 43% of scientific workers, particularly in humanitarian sciences. However, the main reason is low wages. And ­science still functions within patriarchal traditions, while gender and women studies remain heterodox and have low impact on mainstream academic discussion. Governance remains a male field, while women account for deputies, and mostly languish in administrative­ jobs and are only entrusted with decision-making capabilities both in state and corporate governance.

Gender Differences in Wage Negotiations: An Ultimatum Game Experiment

The gender gap in wages that is accepted as a major economic and social issue, can arise from the behaviours of individuals. The fact that the labor force participation rate of women in Turkey is quite low compared to other OECD countries is also an important problem. Women really may accept lower wages in negotiations. However, perceptions that women may accept lower offers may affect offers made by employers. This attitude of employers may cause a gender gap in wages and a low female labor force participation rate. We explore the behavioural gender differences during bargaining by using the ultimatum game. Altruism, risk aversion, generosity, and self-confidence have a significant impact on preferences and so the results of wage bargaining. The ultimatum game is an effective tool for understanding altruism, risk aversion, and generosity. We found two important results in this study. First; when the proposer knows the gender of the other party, his/her offers to women are lower than those to men. Latter; When the gender of the other party is known, female proposers bid higher than men. These results provide evidence that gender income inequality in the labor market may be due to the attitudes of employers (especially men employers). These results can actually explain why the female labor force participation rate is low in Turkey, but more detailed studies are needed on this subject. This study contributes to the literature as one of the few studies examining the wage bargaining of employers with male and female workers in Turkey.