Gender Income Research Articles

CENTROS URBANOS DE AMÉRICA LATINA 1997, 2006: DISPARIDADES SALARIALES SEGÚN GÉNERO Y CRECIMIENTO ECONÓMICO

A particular case of direct inequity conditions related to gender differences is the prevailing level of unequal income in urban centers in Latin America. The existence of this phenomenon within specific regional clusters is the core argument of this study. To support this claim, this paper establishes comparative considerations from gender income inequities in Latin American urban centers, in 1997 and 2006. To this feature of direct inequity based on gender differences, it is important to add other discriminate practices still alive, such as the fact that in some areas girls do not enter to study or prepare themselves, in fields more related with technology and productive innovation. Based on results from this study, Latin America as a region has shown improvements in income inequalities, but there is indisputable need for improvements. Countries such as Peru, Brazil and Bolivia appear with high standards of income differences based on gender discrimination.

What determines the income gap between French male and female GPs - the role of medical practices

BackgroundIn many OECD countries, the gender differences in physicians’ pay favour male doctors. Due to the feminisation of the doctor profession, it is essential to measure this income gap in the French context of Fee-for-service payment (FFS) and then to precisely identify its determinants. The objective of this study is to measure and analyse the 2008 income gap between males and females general practitioners (GPs). This paper focuses on the role of gender medical practices differentials among GPs working in private practice in the southwest region of France.MethodsUsing data from 339 private-practice GPs, we measured an average gender income gap of approximately 26% in favour of men. Using the decomposition method, we examined the factors that could explain gender disparities in income.ResultsThe analysis showed that 73% of the income gap can be explained by the average differences in doctors’ characteristics; for example, 61% of the gender income gap is explained by the gender differences in workload, i.e., number of consultations and visits, which is on average significantly lower for female GPs than for male GPs. Furthermore, the decomposition method allowed us to highlight the differences in the marginal returns of doctors’ characteristics and variables contributing to income, such as GP workload; we found that female GPs have a higher marginal return in terms of earnings when performing an additional medical service.ConclusionsThe findings of this study help to understand the determinants of the income gap between male and female GPs. Even though workload is clearly an essential determinant of income, FFS does not reduce the gender income gap, and there is an imperfect relationship between the provision of medical services and income. In the context of feminisation, it appears that female GPs receive a lower income but attain higher marginal returns when performing an additional consultation.

Physical Capital and the Embodied Nature of Income Inequality: Gender Differences in the Effect of Body Size on Workers’ Incomes in Canada

This study assesses the effects of body size--measured using the body mass index--on the income attainment of female and male workers in Canada. Using data from a national representative sample of Canadians, multivariate analyses show that, for female workers, the body size-income relationship is negative. However, for male workers, the body size-income relationship is positive and nonlinear. Using Bourdieu's conceptualization of physical capital, and Shilling's extension of it, it is argued that these results are suggestive of the relative importance of body size to the production and continuation of gender income inequality in Canada.

Abstract P254: Health-Related Internet Use in Patients with Hypertension: A Population-Based Analysis

Background: With widely available web-based information about hypertension, internet has the potential to improve health literacy and to affect clinical outcomes. In this study we assessed the prevalence of health-related internet (HRI) usage by patients with hypertension and its association with health outcomes. Methods: Hypertension was defined by the question, “Have you ever been told by a doctor or health profession that you have high blood pressure?” Participants who answered “Yes” were included in the sample. If the participants stated that they accessed the Internet to look up health information, to learn about health topics in chat groups, to refill prescriptions, to schedule appointments, or to communicate with their provider, they were included in ‘HRI user’ group. Two logistic regression models were run to assess predictors of HRI usage and to explore the impact of HRI use on health status among hypertension patients. All models were controlled by age, gender, marital status, race, education, and poverty income ratio (PIR). Sampling weights were utilized to produce population-based results. Results: The prevalence of HRI use in hypertension patients was: 57% (40-55 yrs), 50% (56-65 yrs) and 26% (>65 yrs). In comparison, 58% (40-55 yrs), 56% (56-65 years) and 29% (>65 yrs) of population without hypertension used HRI. The difference between two groups was not statistically significant. Younger age (OR 4.0, p <.0001 for 40-55 group, and OR 2.6, p=0.001 for 50-65 group), women (OR 1.4, p <.0001), higher education (OR 3.8, p <.0001 for 12+ years of education), or higher PIR (OR 1.3, p=0.02 for PIR=2, and OR=3.1, p <.0001 for PIR>=3) were predictors of using HRI with statistical significance. Compared to Caucasians, Africans Americans (OR 0.5, p=0.04) were less likely to use the HRI. After adjusting for socio-demographic variables, patients who used HRI in the last 12 months were 1.3 time more likely to report improvement in health status (p=0.04). Conclusions: HRI usage between the hypertension patients and general population did not differ significantly in different age groups. Age, gender, education, PIR, and race were significant predictors of HRI usage pattern. HRI use was associated with improvement in health status within 12 months of using internet.

Meeting Physical Activity Recommendations for Colon Cancer Prevention Among Japanese Adults: Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates

Although physical activity is associated with a lower risk of colon cancer, few studies have described the physical activity required for colon cancer prevention in various sociodemographic subgroups. The current study examined the prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of attaining the 2 recommended physical activity criteria for colon cancer prevention among Japanese adults. The sample included 5322 Japanese adults aged 20 to 79 years. Seven sociodemographic attributes (eg, gender, age, education level, employment status) and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire were assessed via an Internet-based survey. The odds of meeting each physical activity criterion by sociodemographic variables were calculated. Overall, 23.8% of the study population met the criterion of ≥ 420 minutes of moderate-intensity activity, and 6.4% met the criterion of ≥ 210 minutes of vigorous activity. Being male, highly educated, employed, living with another person, being married and having a higher household income were significantly correlated with the attainment of recommendations. Participants who met the 2 activity recommendations differed in gender, education level, employment status, marital status, living conditions, and household income. The findings of the current study imply that strategies to promote more intense physical activity in all demographic groups may be necessary.

Caregiver Social Support for Children Involved With Child Welfare: Correlates and Racial/Ethnic Variations

This study examined correlates of and racial/ethnic variations in social support for caregivers involved in child protective services. A subsample of caregivers and children from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW) was used to examine whether sources and amount of social support for parents in child welfare would vary by race and ethnicity. The findings indicate that caregivers of maltreated children suffer from a lack of support, specifically confidant, affective, and instrumental social support. This study also found that African American caregivers have higher levels of affective social support than do non-Hispanic Whites (NHWs), controlling for other significant caregiver and child characteristics. Structural measures including age, gender, and family income also explained variations in caregiver social support. Research and practical implications are discussed.

How Road Traffic Injuries Affect Household Welfare in Cambodia Using the Millennium Development Goals Benchmarks

This paper reveals the welfare costs of traffic injuries in Cambodia at the beginning of a decade in which greater research and resources will be focused on road safety. The results quantify how road traffic injuries affect progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) using survey data from 100 Cambodian households. The median age of the police-reported casualties was 28 years and 68 per cent were male. In terms of poverty (MDG1), injuries resulted in a 21 per cent loss of income for the 542 household residents. The poorest households, and those with a seriously injured resident, were worst affected. Primary education (MDG2) drop-out rates were eight times the province average. The gender (MDG3) income gap widened by 28 per cent, whilewomen bore 88 per cent of the burden of care for the injured. In terms of child health and mortality (MDG4), 31 per cent of respondents reported adeterioration in child health, while 24 per cent of respondents reported a deterioration in maternal health (MDG5). The households reported rates of priority diseases (MDG6) at twice the national average. Environment (MDG7) outcomes included increased wood fuel use and stagnation in improving drinking water access, with no apparent development partnership (MDG8) to address the negative welfare impacts of road traffic injury.

Occupational Training to Reduce Gender Segregation: The Impacts of Projoven

This paper discusses program evaluation for ProJoven, the Peruvian youth labor training program. Complementing detailed fieldwork, the econometric work implements a two-stage matching procedure on propensity scores, gender and labor income. This allows identification of differentiated program impacts on males and females and attacks the problem of Ashenfelter’s Dips.

Refractive Error and Presbyopia Among Adults in Fiji

Purpose: To characterize refractive error, presbyopia and their correction among adults aged ≥ 40 years in Fiji, and contribute to a regional overview of these conditions.Methods: A population-based cross-sectional survey using multistage cluster random sampling. Presenting distance and near vision were measured and dilated slitlamp examination performed.Results: The survey achieved 73.0% participation (n = 1381). Presenting binocular distance vision ≥ 6/18 was achieved by 1223 participants. Another 79 had vision impaired by refractive error. Three of these were blind. At threshold 6/18, 204 participants had refractive error. Among these, 125 had spectacle-corrected presenting vision ≥ 6/18 (“met refractive error need”); 79 presented wearing no (n = 74) or under-correcting (n = 5) distance spectacles (“unmet refractive error need”). Presenting binocular near vision ≥ N8 was achieved by 833 participants. At threshold N8, 811 participants had presbyopia. Among these, 336 attained N8 with presenting near spectacles (“met presbyopia need”); 475 presented with no (n = 402) or under-correcting (n = 73) near spectacles (“unmet presbyopia need”). Rural residence was predictive of unmet refractive error (p = 0.040) and presbyopia (p = 0.016) need. Gender and household income source were not. Ethnicity-gender-age-domicile-adjusted to the Fiji population aged ≥ 40 years, “met refractive error need” was 10.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 8.7–11.9%), “unmet refractive error need” was 4.8% (95%CI 3.6–5.9%), “refractive error correction coverage” was 68.3% (95%CI 54.4–82.2%),”met presbyopia need” was 24.6% (95%CI 22.4–26.9%), “unmet presbyopia need” was 33.8% (95%CI 31.3–36.3%), and “presbyopia correction coverage” was 42.2% (95%CI 37.6–46.8%).Conclusion: Fiji refraction and dispensing services should encourage uptake by rural dwellers and promote presbyopia correction. Lack of comparable data from neighbouring countries prevents a regional overview.

留在农村，还是继续进城?—返乡农民工分化及土地权益在其中的作用调查研究<br>Stay at Rural, or Still Return to Urban?—An Investigation on the Differentiation of Returning Migrant Workers and the Role of Land Rights

2008 年国际金融危机后返乡农民工发生了分化，在行为选择上面临着留在农村还是继续进城的二元选择。本文通过统计描述和独立样本t 检验，对安徽省调查的数据进行了分析。统计描述发现，以体力劳动为主的城市非正规劳动市场最容易受到金融危机等宏观经济波动的影响。独立样本的t 检验的结果表明，返乡农民工分化在性别和务工收入上的均值存在显著差异。女性农民工更倾向留在农村，而男性农民工更倾向继续进城务工；相对于留在农村的农民工而言，倾向继续进城的农民工发生土地流转较少，且放弃承包地意愿也较低。务工收入越高的农民工更倾向继续进城务工，而务工收入较低的则倾向留在农村。因此本文认为，返乡农民工在留在农村还是继续进城的二元选择上存在显著的性别分化和收入分化，土地收入–保险效应对返乡农民工分化产生了重要影响。 After the financial crisis in 2008, the differentiation of returning migrant workers took place at the same time when returning migrant workers faced with binary choice between staying at rural and returning to urban. This article analyses the survey data collected in Anhui Province by the means of descriptive statistics and independent samples T-test. Statistical description indicates that the urban informal labor market with physical labor is the most vulnerable to the macro-economic fluctuations, such as the financial crisis. Independent samples T-test shows that there are significant differences at the mean of gender and urban wage income. Female migrant workers are inclined to stay at rural, while the male tends to return to urban. Comparing with the migrant workers who tend to stay at rural, those who are willing to return to urban has a lower percentage of participation in land circulation, and their willing to abandon land contractual right is lower too. The migrant workers who gain a higher urban wage income are more likely to return to urban, while the others tend to stay at rural. Therefore, this article concludes that there are significant differentiations of gender and income in the binary choice between staying at rural and returning to urban, and the effect of land income-insurance has an important impact on the differentiation of returning migrant workers.

A Study on the Reading and Writing Abilities of Three, Four, and Five-Year-Old Korean and Japanese Children According to Age, Gender, and Family Income

A Study on the Reading and Writing Abilities of Three, Four, and Five-Year-Old Korean and Japanese Children According to Age, Gender, and Family Income

The determinants of gender pay gap in Portuguese private firms

PurposeThe paper aims to investigate the existence of gender segregation and to analyse the determinants of gender income disparity in Portuguese private firms.Design/methodology/approachThe main research instrument is a qualitative and quantitative questionnaire with 3,906 individuals from 75 Portuguese private firms. This paper uses separate multivariate ordered tobit models for men and women.FindingsIt is found that job segregation is one of the major sources of gender inequality in the labour market but does not contribute for a considerable gender pay gap. In fact only scant and nuanced evidence of a negative gap of 2.2 percent against women is found. However, no support for the contention that women are systematically underpaid if they work in occupations where females are predominant is found. When it comes to variable pay, differences between men and women are less significant than with base pay.Practical implicationsThe paper reveals that the under‐representation of women in high‐paying jobs and their over‐representation in low‐paying clerical and service occupations are key in explaining the existence of a glass ceiling. Despite that it appears wage disparity does exist, and that it will probably continue to exist, the results point towards a window of opportunity for women.Originality/valueThe paper shows that with a higher contribution of men in household and childcare activities, women will have more time and opportunity for lobbying activities, which will increase their opportunities for higher career.

An Examination of Purchase Decision-Making Criteria: A Case of Turkey as a Destination

Purchase decision-making is an important area of research in tourism. This research has been carried out to gain insights into how demographic factors and preferences affect vacation decision criteria. The study utilized a set of data from a match sample of 897 visitors that included domestic visitors from Turkey and visitors from Japan, Korea, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Belgium, Poland, Russia, France, and Germany. Specifically, the study aimed to explore the relationship between purchase decision criteria and sociodemographic characteristics and travel behavior characteristics. Specifically, demographic variables included age, gender, marital status, education level, occupation, and annual income; while travel behavior variables included tourist expenses, lodging package type, and reason for lodging package preference. The results indicated that demographic and select travel behavior characteristics affected the purchase decision in varying degrees. Understanding the complexity of the relationship between decision making and its possible determinants would be great help for destination promoters and marketing managers. The study concluded with theoretical and practical implications of the study findings and made appropriate suggestions for implications.

The fable paradigm of the gender pay gap: Evidence from Portuguese private firms

This study investigates gender income disparity in Portuguese firms using separate Tobit models for men and women. While job segregation seems to be one of the major sources of gender disparity, women do not appear to be systematically underpaid in predominantly female occupations, regardless of the industry, The authors found that gender pay gap is larger in domestic firms, and it increases with employees' accumulated tenure and decreases with advanced education for women and on labor market entry. Despite showing some encouraging cracks, the glass ceiling still continues to prevent women from reaching top management positions. Finally, despite it appears wage disparity does exist, and it will probably continue to exist, the results point towards a window of opportunity for women.

Meeting physical activity recommendations for colon cancer prevention among Japanese adults: Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates

Background: Although physical activity is associated with a lower risk of colon cancer, few studies have described the physical activity required for colon cancer prevention in various sociodemographic subgroups. The current study examined the prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of attaining the 2 recommended physical activity criteria for colon cancer prevention among Japanese adults. Methods: The sample included 5322 Japanese adults aged 20 to 79 years. Seven sociodemographic attributes (eg, gender, age, education level, employment status) and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire were assessed via an Internet-based survey. The odds of meeting each physical activity criterion by sociodemographic variables were calculated. Results: Overall, 23.8% of the study population met the criterion of ≥ 420 minutes of moderate-intensity activity, and 6.4% met the criterion of ≥ 210 minutes of vigorous activity. Being male, highly educated, employed, living with another person, being married and having a higher household income were significantly correlated with the attainment of recommendations. Conclusions: Participants who met the 2 activity recommendations differed in gender, education level, employment status, marital status, living conditions, and household income. The findings of the current study imply that strategies to promote more intense physical activity in all demographic groups may be necessary.

Service Use and Costs of Care for Depressed Adolescents: Who Uses and Who Pays?

Major depressive disorder is common in adolescence and is associated with significant morbidity and family burden. Little is known about service use by depressed adolescents. The purpose of this article is to report the patterns of services use and costs for participants in the Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study sample during the 3 months before randomization. Costs were assigned across three categories of payors: families, private insurance, and the public sector. We examined whether costs from payors varied by baseline covariates, such as age, gender, insurance status, and family income. The majority (71%) of depressed youth sought services during the 3-month period. Slightly more than one-fifth had contact with a behavioral health specialist. The average participant had just under $300 (SD = $437.67, range = $0–$3,747.71) in treatment-related costs, with most of these costs borne by families and private insurers.

Interior Color Preference Investigation Using Interactive Genetic Algorithm

This paper presents an investigation of Beijing residents concerning their apartment interior color preference using an IGA interior design system. The investigation tested typical living room interiors consisting of five factors, the ceiling, walls, floor, interior door and sofa, and the participants were instructed to find ideal color combinations for the five factors using the IGA system. Through statistical analysis of the design results of 231 participants, it was found that they tend to use brighter materials for the walls and floor in darker interiors. It was also found that their age, gender and family income level has an influence on their preference concerning lightness and saturation of interior color. Through analysis of the evolutionary process of IGA, it is also revealed that the color of the ceiling, walls, floor and door tend to be similar to each other, while the difference of color of the sofa to the other colors tends to be more diverse.

Socioeconomic inequalities and mortality among disability pensioners in Norway – a population-based cohort study

Background: The study assessed the mortality related to disability pension (DP) status in Norway during 1990-96 and investigated whether socioeconomic factors explained the increased mortality. Methods: A 10% random sample of the Norwegian population aged 30-59 years, 73,420 women and 75,500 men, were followed-up with respect to death or emigration in 1990-96. DP-status, age, gender, educational level and mean income before inclusion were used as explanatory variables in Cox’ regression analysis with death as endpoint. The analyses were stratified for gender and separately for persons who had obtained DP before 1985 (early) and in 1985-1989 (late). Results: The majority of persons with DP had only basic education and belonged to the lowest income level. Among the women 6.2% in the DP-group died during follow-up compared to 1.2% of those in the non-DP group. The corresponding percentages for men were 14.5% and 2.3%. The age-adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) were 3.5 and 2.5 for women with early and late DP, and 4.3 and 3.3 among men. After adjustment for socioeconomic variables, the HRs were 2.9 and 2.2 for women, and 2.2 and 1.9 for men. Conclusions: Nearly half of the excess mortality related to DP-status was explained by low socioeconomic status among the men. Among women, HR related to DP was not significantly reduced after the adjustments for socioeconomic variables. These findings indicate a strong impact of the medical factors underlying the DP decision, especially among women, but also an important role of the socioeconomic factors related to DP status.

Anticipating the Impacts of Land Registration Programmes

Land administration in the developing world currently focuses on land adjudication, land titling and land registration programmes for deriving economic, social and environmental benefits. Land registration programmes have consequently been instituted in much of Latin America, the Caribbean and the transitional states of Eastern Europe. The process by which land registration programmes lead to these benefits is impacted by a range of local factors. Hence, the potential of achieving these benefits requires the design of a process that suits the local socio-economic environment. Preparatory work for the proposed Land Adjudication and Registration Programme (LARP) in Trinidad and Tobago acquired baseline survey data as a precursor to eventual periodic assessment of the impact of the programme. Current land tenure status was assessed in relation to the following socio-economic factors: location, gender, ethnicity and household income. These values would be used to evaluate whether positive land tenure related effects are being achieved by the land registration programme.This paper presents the results of the baseline study that was conducted to theoretically anticipate positive impacts of LARP. Major impact indicator values found in the sample were that (i) only 34% of the sampled households possessed formal tenure, (ii) formal tenure ranged from a low 2% in one sampled area, (iii) only 32% of the low income group sampled possessed formal tenure, and (iv) only 27% of the female headed households sampled possessed formal tenure.

Class, Race, and the Spousal Income Gap

The literature on gender economics has largely ignored the striking variation of the gender income gap across socioeconomic classes and racial and ethnic groups. Our article reports the effects of family income, educational attainment, and race-ethnicity on the ratio of the individual incomes of husbands and wives, the spousal gap, in the United States, using regression analysis on the PUMS data. We find that the higher the family income and the educational gap between husbands and wives, the larger the spousal gap. Non-White husbands (especially Blacks) are associated with significantly lower spousal gaps. Conditions shaping wives' choices --especially in relation to allocating more or less labor to their homes—have a larger impact on the spousal gap than those shaping husbands’ choices. This underscores the importance of industrial and occupational desegregation, antidiscrimination in the workplace, and the provision of services that relieve wives from domestic labor in improving gender equity.