Gender Empowerment Measure Research Articles

Effort to gender equality in Indonesia, compared on ASEAN

This study aims to determine the extent of gender inequality in human resource development in Indonesia against Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). This research using secondary data from various relevant sources. There are five dimensions that and are important for measuring gender equality, namely economic participation, economic opportunities, political empowerment, educational attainment, and health and welfare. The assessment was carried out on Indonesia and other countries in Southeast Asia. The results of the study show that Indonesia has the lowest gender development index (GDI) score compared to the average in ASEAN. Then, gender empowerment measure (GEM) Indonesia increased slowly. The most striking gap is in the income dimension, where men’s income far exceeds women’s income. This happens because women work less than men because women are more traditional in domestic roles in Indonesia, where women are prioritized in managing the household. However, for political indicators, there has been an increase in the number of women in parliament, but the target has not yet reached 30 percent of the total number of women in parliament. This situation shows that there is a reduction in the gender gap in the economy and politics. But the number is still too small, it is necessary to increase the equally distributed equivalent percentage (EDEP) for the Economic Participation Index, Parliamentary Representation Index and Income Index.

Ascendancy of Mass Media in Achieving Gender Equality

For centuries, marginalisation has affected the niches and nooks of the world on a different level. Identities like caste, creed, religion, language, race and gender have been practiced with a hierarchy and hegemony. Women are one of the largest marginalized communities along with LGBTQIA+. OTT platform plays a crucial role in displaying voices from the margins in order to showcase socio-cultural inequality and inhumanity. The present paper deals with the Indian patriarchal mindset that refuses to accept women as a major contributor and creator of society. Accepting all weak gender identities as a part of the main stream is almost like mission impossible. Desmond Tutu’s ‘rainbow colour society’ is a far reaching-goal in India. Thanks to social media of the 21st century for transmitting these minority voices to the public’s attention and awareness. The media of the 21st century has aided a lot in conditioning society’s mindset into accepting an egalitarian society. The present paper deals with marginalized married Indian women’s voices from a film called The Great Indian Kitchen on OTT and a television series based on Manju Kapoor’s novel Married Woman and Jhumpa Lahiri’s novel, Namesake. The house wives have been portrayed as searching for identities and are rebellious against the stereotypical roles. The issues of identities of the women protagonists have been powerfully depicted through these channels. The research is based upon qualitative and quantitative data analysis with statistical evidence wherever necessary. The paper is divided into four parts, namely the role of media in the 21st century, issues of identities as a theoretical background, application of the identity issues of Ashima , protagonist of book , Namesake Nimisha, the protagonist, in the film The Great Indian Kitchen and in the tele-series The Married Woman and last but not the least conclusions. This is a study and critique to highlight how the media aids in re-conceptualization of societal norms and traditions for the queer and female community to gain their self-esteem and dignity with special reference to GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure).

Inclusivity in Urban Development: The Gender Perspective

This comprehensive document explores the critical intersection of gender, development, and urban planning, emphasizing the need to integrate gender considerations into the development of urban areas. It recognizes that gender roles and inequalities significantly impact the lives of men and women in cities and aims to ensure that urban policies and projects address these disparities, fostering gender equality, inclusion, and sustainability. The document delves into multifaceted dimensions of gender, distinguishing between practical and strategic gender needs. It traces the evolution of gender development, highlighting the importance of mainstreaming gender considerations into development planning. Key indicators like the Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) are discussed as essential tools for assessing gender equity. The report also examines gender planning, emphasizing the need for gender-sensitive policies and addressing institutional concerns. It spotlights the Indian scenario, emphasizing the imperative of gender equality for national progress. Additionally, it discusses the increasing representation of women in Asian politics and the challenges they face. In conclusion, while progress is evident, challenges remain in achieving gender equality in urban environments. This document serves as a valuable resource for policymakers and stakeholders committed to creating more equitable and inclusive cities. Key Words: Gender Development, Gender Inequality, Gender Planning, Women's Empowerment

The Role of Gender Equality on Poverty Alleviation: Case of Indonesia

The Gender Development and Empowerment Index of Indonesia, which represents the equality between genders, has consistently fallen below the global average since 1990. This concerning trend gains significance given that half of the country's population is female. Relying on only half of the population for economic and developmental progress is suboptimal. Hence, fostering empowerment for all genders emerges as a potentially more effective strategy to catalyse economic growth and alleviate poverty across the nation. This study investigates how gender equality measures affect poverty at the regional level using dynamic panel data by system-generalised method of moments (system-GMM) technique on 514 districts in Indonesia spanning from 2014 to 2020. The result indicates that the Gender Development Index, characterized by a higher average score and lower standard deviation pronounces a more positive effect on poverty alleviation in comparison to the Gender Empowerment Measure. This can be attributed to the prevailing underrepresentation and limited participation of women in critical spheres such as the economy, higher-level management, parliamentary activities, and decision-making processes. Thus, there is a need to reinforce women's inclusion into formal positions and campaign for the participation of both genders in household chores and childcare to improve gender equality. Even small increases in the opportunities available to women and some release of cultural and political constraints can lead to significant economic and social benefits.

THE ROLE OF FEMALE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (SYRIAN WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP AS A LIFESTYLE)

This study examines the effect of female business projects and their impact on women’s economic and social empowerment through increasing women’s contribution to income, their role in family decision-making, improving their standard of living, self-esteem, and self-confidence, eliminating poverty and unemployment that rural women suffer from. The gender gap in entrepreneurship persists despite the increasing number of public policies and institutional resources intended to promote women-led enterprises. A qualitative method was used to review the literature related to Women Entrepreneurship in Syria. The economic contribution of women in Syria is characterized by its diversity between agriculture, trade, and government jobs. However, the Syrian crisis has heavily affected the level of entrepreneurship. Data shows that the business performance index decreased to 41.6% in 2018, making Syria rank 174 out of 190 countries surveyed. Even though Syria has witnessed a great improvement in the level of women’s development in parallel with the development of the level of women’s education and their entry into the labour market within the public and private sectors alike, still the most recent Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) shows the relative gender gap in entrepreneurship index rate is currently at 0.2. The percentage of entrepreneurship was limited to 1% of working women, compared to 4.9% of men, meaning there are approximately five male entrepreneurs for every female entrepreneur which clearly highlight the need for support.

Study of the Socio-Economic Analysis of Females Role in Eastern part of Indonesia

It is very crucial to involve women in a development, especially in developing countries. It will be more successful if it has the support from men and women to increase gender equality and reduce inequality. Females are the human resources that play a role in the development and gender empowerment. The role can be measured by GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure). This research determined the socio-economic role of females in Eastern Indonesia in terms of education, health, employment, and politics. This study utilizes some variables including : Mean Year of Female School , Female Life Expectancy, Female Labor Force Participation Rate, and Female Representation in Parliament Rates. This research uses panel data regression and the Fixed Effect Model method. Secondary macro data are shared from BPS from 2013 to 2020. It can be concluded that this study indicates the mean year female school, female life expectancy, female labor force participation rate, and female representation in parliament rate have a positive and significant effect partially and simultaneously on the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) in Eastern Indonesia.

Dynamism in the Gender Wage Gap: Evidence from Pakistan

One of the main caveats of Pakistan’s economic development history is the persistence of gender inequality with respect to almost all socioeconomic indicators. For instance, Pakistan ranks 66, out of 75 countries, with respect to the Gender Empowerment Measure (Human Development Report, 2006) with a GEM value of 0.377, largely a manifestation of very low estimated female to male earned income ratio, which is a depressing 0.29. GEM and other labour force statistics confirm the gender gap in labour force participation. One of the possible explanations of this gender gap is gender discrimination in the labour market, particularly in wages. Evidence with respect to gender discrimination in Pakistan’s labour market is welldocumented. Siddique, et al. (2006), Nasir and Nazli (2000), Siddique, et al. (1998) and Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) all confirm that men earn higher wages than women even after controlling for measurable characteristics affecting their productivity. These studies, however, analyse the gender wage gap by comparing the mean male/female wage. Studies which compare the gender wage gap at different points along the wage distribution are not available for Pakistan.

Does National Context Matter When Women Surpass Their Partner in Status?

There is growing evidence that couples in non-traditional relationships in which the woman attains higher status than her male partner experience more negative relationship outcomes than traditional couples. A possible reason is that non-traditional couples violate persisting gender stereotypes that prescribe men to be breadwinners and women to be caregivers of the family. In the current study (N = 2,748), we investigated whether a country’s gender-stereotypical culture predicts non-traditional men and women’s relationship and life outcomes. We used the European Sustainable Workforce Survey, which is conducted in nine European countries. Two indicators of countries’ gender-stereotypical culture are used: Gender Empowerment Measure and implicit gender stereotypes. We found that women’s income and -to a lesser extent- education degree relative to their male partner affected outcomes such as relationship quality, negative emotions, and experienced time pressure. Furthermore, men and women living in countries with a traditional gender-stereotypical culture (e.g., Netherlands, Hungary) reported lower relationship quality when women earned more than their partners. Relative income differences did not affect the relationship quality of participants living in egalitarian countries (e.g., Sweden, Finland). Also, couples in which the woman is more highly educated than the man reported higher relationship quality in egalitarian countries, but not in traditional countries. Our findings suggest that dominant beliefs and ideologies in society can hinder or facilitate couples in non-traditional relationships.

Desigualdad, maltrato de la mujer y duración de la lactancia materna, Colombia, 2010: Estudio ecológico

Introduction: Breastfeeding decreases morbidity, mortality and promotes health in the mother and child. The lower morbidity in relative terms in breastfed versus non-breastfed infants reduces healthcare costs. In Colombia, the duration of breastfeeding is far from desirable times and continues to decline. Objectives: The objectives were (a) to determine economic inequality based on monetary poverty at the ecological level in the duration of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) and total breastfeeding (BF) and (b) to establish the social determinants of EBF and BF using the territory as a unit of analysis. Method: An ecological study was conducted based on data collected regarding the median duration of exclusive breastfeeding and total breastfeeding. The information was provided by 9,389 mothers with children less than 36 months who responded to the National Survey of the Nutritional Situation of 2010 in Colombia. The data were summarized in 24 departments or geodemographic units that represent the Colombian territory (n=24). Fourteen variables representing the economic, social, human and structural development levels in the territory were related by linear regression to explain the duration of EBF and BF. Results: EBF lasted 1.18 months (95% CI: 1.00 to 1.36), and BF lasted 14.79 months (95% CI: 13.50 to 16.08). Economic inequality was low, and the Gini coefficient was 0.35 for EBF and 0.10 for BF. The EBF duration is affected by the gender empowerment measure (GEM) (β=-1.94, p=0.006) and medical coverage (%) (β=-0.02, p=0.060). The BF duration is explained by the Monetary poverty (β=0.12, p=0.007) GEM (β=-9.94, p=0.033) and Female abuse rate x 100,000 (β=0.01, p=0.005). Conclusions: The impact of social and human development is greater than the economic aspect as a determinant of EBF and BF duration in Colombia. Exclusive and total breastfeeding are phenomena explained differently.

Spline Nonparametric Regression to Analyze Factors Affecting Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) in East Java

Gender is a multidimensional issue that's not limited to gender discrimination, but alsoincludes the economic, educational, and health aspects, which then become the focus of almost all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Evaluation of the development devoted to the perspective of the gender using several indicators, Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). GEM describes the role of women in the economic sphere and is measured by equality in political participation. GEM of East Java for 5 consecutive years (2014 – 2018) is lower than the average national GEM. This study aims to identify factors affecting GEM in East Java using nonparametric regression spline quadratic. The result ofthe regression model shows the factors affecting GEM East Java is the Labor Force Participation Rate(LFPR) population of women (), School Participation Rate(SPR) high school population of women (), Percentage of Population Female thatWorking in the formal sector (), sex ratio (), Percentage of Population Female that Working as members of People’s Representative Council (), Percentage of Population Female that working as Civil Servants (), and rate of women's income donations (). The model generates value of 93.74% and MAPE of 3.22%.This research contributes to the implementation of non-parametric spline regression in identifying various factors that influence social phenomena.

Gender Empowerment Measure: Concept and Frame work

Gender Empowerment Measure: Concept and Frame work

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT PERFORMANCE PROFILE DAN KORELASINYA DENGAN PRODUKTIVITAS TENAGA KERJA DI INDONESIA

The result of research, found out that during the period of 1990- 1996, in every province in Indonesia, Human Development Index (HDI), Gender-Related Development Index (GDI), and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) are going up and Human Poverty Index (HPI) is down significantly and human development in Indonesia is getting better. There is a significant and linear correlation between human development performance profile and labor force productivity in Indonesia in 1996 and classified into moderatelly high correlation.Then the use of composite index like HDI, GDI, GEM, and HPI reflecting the complex reality is considered very important Evaluation for improvement and development is still required. Subsequent research revise and improve the methodology of composite index and its indicators.

Cultural Factors Facilitating or Inhibiting the Support for Traditional Household Gender Roles

Movement toward gender equality has occurred worldwide for the past century; nevertheless, some people still strongly endorse traditional gender norms. We investigated the associations of societal characteristics (gross domestic product [GDP] per capita and the gender empowerment measure) and cultural characteristics, including Hofstede’s, Schwartz’s, and Welzel’s scores (hierarchy vs. egalitarianism, person vs. social focus, mastery vs. harmony, long-term orientation, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity–femininity), with support for traditional household gender roles. To reveal advantageous or disadvantageous conditions for support for traditional household gender roles, we conducted a secondary data analysis with representative samples ( n = 59,713) of 41 societies collected by the International Social Survey Program. According to the multilevel modeling analysis, individuals have lower endorsement of traditional household gender roles in societies that value mastery and enjoy economic development (i.e., GDP per capita), gender equality (measured by the gender empowerment measure), and personal focus. Contrarily, individuals have higher endorsement of traditional household gender roles in societies where hierarchy, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, and masculine characteristics are valued. Individual characteristics (women, work experience, education, big-city experience, and younger generations) also predict lower support for traditional household gender roles. In addition, gender differences in traditional household gender roles are larger in societies with greater economic development and personal focus and lower emphasis on hierarchy and long-term orientation. Finally, the national means of traditional household gender roles predict concurrent social movement activities and gender equality at a later time. Potential mechanisms are further discussed.

KEKERASAN TERHADAP PEREMPUAN DAN PERCERAIAN DALAM PERSPEKTIF PEMBERDAYAAN PEREMPUAN

<p><em>The achievement of Indonesian’s women empowerment through Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) shows an increase in the last eight years. On the other hand, the increasing trend is also seen in the percentage of violence against women. Ideally, the increase in GDI is followed by a decrease in acts of violence. A study of the 2017 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey’s data and also on the Annual Note of The Women's National Commission in 2018 is conduct to illustrate the conditions of women's empowerment, violence against women, and divorce as a result of violence. This study used a qualitative approach with descriptive and comparative analysis. The results indicate that the two indicators of women's empowerment, that is women's participation in household decision making and women's control of her income were related to disagreement towards domestic violence. In general, the higher the participation and control that women have, the more women disagree with all reasons to justify beating husbands to wives. This shows that in the future this attitude can reduce domestic violence as a cause of divorce. However, this study needs a more comprehensive analysis. This study also recommends the need for strengthening gender-based legislation to eliminate violence against women and will have an impact on women welfare and family resilience.</em></p>

Comparative Analyses of Housework and Its Relation to Paid Work: Institutional Contexts and Individual Agency

Despite major changes in gender divisions of work since the 1960s, women continue to perform a larger share of unpaid housework and care than men, whereas men continue to perform more paid work. This is true for a wide range of countries. The paper first describes respective macro-trends for women’s and men’s changing contributions to paid work, routine housework and child care over the past 70 years. It then focuses on the role of institutional context and individual agency in gender divisions of routine housework according to cross-national comparative research published since 2000. On the macro level, the paper identifies three main areas of investigation: the role of work–family policies, welfare state regimes, and national levels of gender equality (Gender Empowerment Measure, the Gender Development Index and the Gender Inequality Index) for men’s and women’s divisions of work. On the micro level, studies mainly assess theories of economic dependency and resource bargaining, time availability, doing gender and deviance neutralization. More recently, research is turning to the examination of inter-relations between the micro- and macro-level factors. According to the state of research, women are better able to enact economic and noneconomic agency in national contexts with high levels of gender equality and supportive work–family policies. This is apparent in the Scandinavian countries.

Associations between gender equality and health: a systematic review.

This systematic review sought to evaluate the impact of gender equality on the health of both women and men in high-income countries. A range of health outcomes arose across the 48 studies included. Gender equality was measured in various ways, including employment characteristics, political representation, access to services, and with standard indicators (such as the Global Gender Gap Index and the Gender Empowerment Measure). The effects of gender equality varied depending on the health outcome examined, and the context in which gender equality was examined (i.e. employment or domestic domain). Overall, evidence suggests that greater gender equality has a mostly positive effect on the health of males and females. We found utility in the convergence model, which postulates that gender equality will be associated with a convergence in the health outcomes of men and women, but unless there is encouragement and support for men to assume more non-traditional roles, further health gains will be stymied.

Spousal resources and relationship quality in eight European countries

ABSTRACTWe relate relationship satisfaction and thoughts about leaving a romantic relationship to a couple’s relative and absolute resources and check for context-dependency of those associations. Our theoretical point of departure is that the more resources women have compared to their spouses, the higher their intra-household bargaining power to negotiate themselves out of unpleasant tasks, particularly in gender-egalitarian and very income equal and unequal societies. In traditional societies (which score low on the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)), the inflexible role of men within the household presumably prevents women from bargaining a better position, which in turn negatively affects relationship quality. Income equality (low GINI coefficient) may be a prerequisite for women’s bargaining position, where more inequality (mid-GINI) may be detrimental for it. Nevertheless, extreme income inequality (high GINI) may again be favorable for women’s relationship power. Using country fixed effects models on data from the Generations and Gender Surveys (GGS), we compare men and women who are in a couple (formed after 1995) for eight European countries. We find that absolute resources matter more than relative resources, at least for relationship satisfaction: Higher educated couples are more satisfied with their relationships, which could suggest lower stress levels in those couples (in more traditional contexts). Second, we observe GINI context-dependency of the association between relative education and relationship satisfaction for women and relative education and exit thoughts for men, although opposite to what we expected. Perhaps reference group theory or gender display theory can explain these unexpected results. Finally, we find that women have more break-up plans in societies with a lower score on GEM. This last result is consistent with the notion that bargaining only works in egalitarian contexts.

(E)Quality of Life: A Cross-National Analysis of the Effect of Gender Equality on Life Satisfaction

Several international organizations have recently prioritized promoting equal rights for men and women. Reflecting these priorities, many view gender equality as a means to promote societal well-being; yet still others suggest that it has deleterious effects on the enacting state. To test these pro-equality arguments, we examine the effect of four major indicators of gender (in)equality on life satisfaction: the Gender Empowerment Measure, Gender Development Index, Gender Inequality Index, and the Gender Gap Index (or Global Gender Gap). Utilizing survey data from the World Values Survey and Eurobarometer, we find strong and consistent evidence that promoting gender equality leads to greater subjective well-being. Furthermore, we demonstrate that policies promoting gender equality tend to improve the quality of life for everyone, not just direct beneficiaries of the policies (women). Indeed, men also see strong and significant gains in life satisfaction when the sexes are more equal. As a result, we suggest that scholars of subjective well-being expand research into determinants of quality of life to include equality and other social factors. We also suggest that the findings presented here have tangible implications for governments and policy workers who are tasked with promoting equality and well-being.

Family typology and gender empowerment: the labour market performance of married immigrants

This paper examines the impact of gender empowerment on labor market performance of U.S. married immigrants across different family types. Three types of families are defined based on the nationality of immigrants’ spouses; ‘Home-country Marriage’ where both spouses come from the same home-country, ‘Native Marriage’ where one spouse is an immigrant and the other is a Native, and ‘Foreign Marriage’ where both spouses are immigrants, but each comes from a different country of origin from the other. Recognizing the role of gender ideology across different family structures, this study provides empirical evidence of the impact culturally based gender status has on immigrants across family types. Labor market performance is measured by wages and the labor force participation decision of immigrants, using the Ordinary Least Squares and Logit models. The gender empowerment measure is utilized to reflect different cultural and institutional conditions, which shape gender status in the immigrants’ home countries. Results indicate the positive effect of gender equality on women’s earnings and labor force participation, as well as that home-country gender status strongly influence women’s labor force participation and earnings when they share the same cultural norms as their husbands. Interestingly, women are more influenced by their spouses’ gender norms than men when immigrants come from a different cultural gender norm than their spouse.

Associations between gender equality and health: a systematic review.

This systematic review sought to evaluate the impact of gender equality on the health of both women and men in high-income countries. A range of health outcomes arose across the 48 studies included. Gender equality was measured in various ways, including employment characteristics, political representation, access to services, and with standard indicators (such as the Global Gender Gap Index and the Gender Empowerment Measure). The effects of gender equality varied depending on the health outcome examined, and the context in which gender equality was examined (i.e. employment or domestic domain). Overall, evidence suggests that greater gender equality has a mostly positive effect on the health of males and females. We found utility in the convergence model, which postulates that gender equality will be associated with a convergence in the health outcomes of men and women, but unless there is encouragement and support for men to assume more non-traditional roles, further health gains will be stymied.