Pay Gap Research Articles

The Impact of Fertility Relaxation on the Gender Wage Gap

The Impact of Fertility Relaxation on the Gender Wage Gap

Does reliable electricity mean lesser agricultural labor wages? Evidence from Indian villages

Using a panel of 1,171 villages in rural India that were surveyed in the India Human Development Surveys, I perform a difference-in-differences analysis to find that improvements in electricity reliability have a negative effect on the increase in casual agricultural labor wage rates. Changes in men’s wage rates are found to be affected more adversely than women’s, resulting in a smaller widening of the gender wage gap. I find that better electricity reliability reduces the time spent by women in fuel collection substantially which could potentially increase labor supply. The demand for labor remains unaffected by reliability, which could lead the surplus in labor supply to cause wage rates to stunt. However, I show that electrical appliances such as groundwater pumps considerably increase labor demand indicating that governments could target increasing the adoption of electric pumps along with bettering the quality of electricity to absorb the surplus labor into agriculture.

The Gender Wage Gap: Skills, Sorting, and Returns

There is a large gender wage gap among college graduates. This gender gap could be partially driven by differences in college major and prior skills. We use Swedish register data to study how much of the gender gap can be explained by differences in majors, skills, and skill prices. College majors explain 60 percent of the gender wage gap, but large gaps remain within majors. We find that within-major wage gaps are driven by neither differences in multidimensional skills nor returns to these skills. In fact, women are positively selected in terms of college preparation and skills in almost every major.

Is the Gender Pay Gap Largest at the Top?

Conditional quantile regressions reveal that, while the gender pay gap at the top percentiles is largest among the most educated, the gap at the bottom percentiles is largest among the least educated. Gender differences in work hours create more pay inequality among the least educated than they do among the most educated. The pay gap has declined throughout the distribution since 2006, but it has declined more for the most educated women. Current economics-of-gender research focuses heavily on the top end; equal emphasis should be placed on mechanisms driving gender inequality for non-college-educated workers.

The gender wage gap in Israel: evidence from PIAAC data

ABSTRACT This article examines the gender wage gap in Israel – almost the highest gap among OECD countries in 2021. Using the PIAAC data to estimate wage equations and the wage gap, it shows that the main explanations for the gap are the difference in working hours between males and females, as well as differences in numeracy skills and the use of these skills at work. It concludes that public policy for narrowing the wage gap must include actions to encourage females to take full-time jobs and to encourage girls at school to take more advanced STEM courses.

The Gender Application Gap: Do Men and Women Apply for the Same Jobs?

Men and women tend to hold different jobs. Are these differences present already in the types of jobs men and women apply for? Using administrative data on job applications made by the universe of Danish unemployment insurance recipients, we provide evidence on gender differences in applied-for jobs for the broader labor market. Across a range of job characteristics, we find large gender gaps in the share of applications going to different job types even among observationally similar men and women. In a standard decomposition, gender differences in applications can explain more than 70 percent of the residual gender wage gap. (JEL J16, J31, J64, J65, J71)

Ameliorating the profound gender wage gap in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry among the APEC members: The could and should

This research aims to discover the challenges and propose effective strategies to empower women by ameliorating the gender wage gap in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry among the APEC members. The study applied document review analysis and conducted focus group discussions, where thirty female professionals in the AEC industry from APEC participated. The results report four challenges contributing to the gender wage gap, namely gender bias and stereotyping, work-family conflicts, physical strength and lack of transparency. Based on the challenges, the study suggests several key strategies focusing on women's participation in the AEC industry, encouraging gender-friendly workplaces, healthy and safe workplaces, and fair career development opportunities to reduce the gender wage gap effectively. The findings suggest that by increasing awareness of the value of women's involvement in the AEC industry, pragmatic policies should be formulated for APEC members to break down the barriers to the gender wage gap.

Characteristics or Returns: Understanding Gender Pay Inequality among College Graduates in the USA

Explanations for the persistent pay disparity between similarly qualified men and women vary between women’s different and devalued work characteristics and specific processes that result in unequal wage returns to the same characteristics. This article investigates how the gender wage gap is affected by gender differences in detailed work activities among full-time, year-round, college-graduate workers in the US using decomposition analysis in the National Survey of College Graduates. Differences in men’s and women’s characteristics account for a majority of the gender wage gap. Additionally, men and women receive different returns to several characteristics: occupational composition, marriage and work activities. While men are penalized more than women for having teaching as their primary work activity, women receive lower rewards for primary work activities such as finance and computer programming. The findings suggest that even with men and women becoming more similar on several characteristics, unequal returns to those characteristics will stall progress towards equality.

Digitization and Gender Income Gap Among Rural Migrants: Evidence from China

This article explores the role of digitization in the gender wage gap among rural migrants in China. With the rapid development of the digital economy, rural migrant workers have become an important part of society. Based on data source from National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, we find that although digitization increases the overall income of rural migrant workers, it benefits males more than females, and the gender income gap among rural migrants is widening. According to our estimates, digitization significantly improves the mobility of females and requires more male physical workers than females, thus widening the gender income gap. Heterogeneity analysis shows that there are significant differences in the effect of digitization among those who have different education levels, marital status, ages, and the economic levels of the cities they have migrated to. The gender income gap widens when rural migrants have junior or high school education, are married, are young, and have migrated to cities with high economic development. Our findings highlight the effects of digitization across special social groups, providing micro-evidence of the digital economy's impact on the gender income gap and offering useful references for implementing digital strategies and public policies to social equity and sustainable development.

Family Restrictions at Work

This paper analyzes one of the causes of the current gender-unbalanced situation in the labor market: the discrimination that individuals face at work due to their commitment to unpaid care work. It aims at finding mechanisms that may induce a change from the current unbalanced situation to a world in which males and females are found in more equal shares in all professions and at all levels. I construct a formal model that includes the heterogeneity of individuals regarding their family commitments and I investigate how it affects the individual’s optimal labor market participation. The welfare of individuals with commitment to family duties is reduced for two different reasons: for not being able to participate as much in the labor market and thus receive a lower labor income and for not being able to contribute as much to their family commitments. I compare the results for the female and male sections of the society and I illustrate the observed gender gaps in terms of labor market participation, income levels, and the overall utility obtained. I find that even though the gender wage gap may be alleviated with reductions in the cost associated to unpaid care work, the gender utility gap will persist.

Wage inequality across regions in India: Exploring the role of education and skills

This study explores regional differences in wage inequality in India and examine various contributory factors for increasing disparities in wages across different regions in India. Using data from the India Human Development Survey (IHDS) 2011–12 and employing RIF regression methodology, the study investigates the influence of the level of education, experience, English and computer skills, gender, age, religion, and other background characteristics on wage inequality. The findings reveal that higher education levels, experience, English, and computer skills significantly contribute to wage disparities across regions. The study highlights the importance of addressing these factors to promote greater equity and inclusivity in the labor market.

Can wage transparency alleviate gender sorting in the labour market?

SUMMARY A large share of the gender wage gap can be attributed to occupation and employer choices. If workers are not well informed about these pay differences, increasing wage transparency might alleviate the gender gap. We test this hypothesis by examining the impact of mandatory wage postings. In 2011, Austria introduced a policy that requires firms to provide a minimum wage offer in job postings. To compare the pay prospects of vacancies before and after the introduction, we predict posted wages using detailed occupation–firm cells, which explain about 75% of the variation in wage postings. While we estimate a substantial gender gap of 15 log points, mandatory wage postings do not affect gender sorting into better-paying occupations and firms.

Challenges and implications of microwork in the age of artificial intelligence: A global socioeconomic analysis

This study adopts a discursive and analytical perspective to explore how technological advances are reconfiguring the dynamics of the global labour market, with special attention to the phenomenon of microwork. Microwork, characterised by short, fragmented tasks carried out through digital platforms and geographically distributed, has seen exponential growth, particularly in nations with lower economic development. This type of work shows a growing distinction between tasks of a complex and creative nature and those of a repetitive and monotonous nature that do not require advanced skills to perform. This differentiation can intensify wage disparities between developed and developing countries, as well as contribute to the precariousness of work in activities considered less complex and valued. The article highlights the emergence of unstable and poorly paid jobs that do not require specific qualifications and discusses their impact on social security systems in countries where labour regulations are insufficient. Using a theoretical-methodological approach, the research examines the role of artificial intelligence in the rise of micro-labour and its socio-economic implications. It concludes that despite the flexibility and short-term earning opportunities offered by microwork, it poses considerable challenges in terms of income security, workers’ rights, and social protection, emphasising the need for regulatory measures to mitigate its adverse effects on vulnerable communities.

The minimum wage and cross-community crime disparities

The minimum wage and cross-community crime disparities

Gender imbalance in the labor market: causes and features

The article examines current research on labor mobility and gender inequality in the labor market: occupational segregation, unequal pay and the «maternity penalty». The study of the impact of gender stereotypes, social foundations, choice of educational path and professional environment on wage disparities between women and men was conducted. Wage imbalances are widespread around the world and affect the majority of economic sectors and employment types. In Russia data on the gender pay gap varies widely by region, economic sector and occupational group, and where male employment prevails, the rate of disparity is often higher. The recommendations from international organizations on equalizing women and men in labor rights are given.

Does Working from Home Increase the Gender Wage Gap? Insights from an Italian Survey of Occupations

ABSTRACT This article investigates to what extent the working from home (WFH) feasibility of occupations can influence the gender wag gap (GWG) at the mean and along the wage distribution. Based on Oaxaca–Blinder decompositions and unconditional quantile regressions, results show that the GWG is greater among women working in an occupation with a high level of WFH feasibility. We find evidence of both sticky floor and glass ceiling effects for employees with high WFH feasibility and only a sticky floor effect for the group with low WFH feasibility. The positive association revealed between the level of WFH feasibility and the GWG appears particularly strong among older and married women employees. These results underscore that the WFH feasibility may play an important role in exacerbating future gender gaps in wages, as WFH is expected to remain a normal practice beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. HIGHLIGHTS Working from home (WFH) feasibility of occupations influences the gender wage gap (GWG) in Italy. GWG is overall wider among employees with high WFH feasibility than employees with low WFH feasibility. The GWG is higher among older and married women employees. A possible explanation is Italy’s ungenerous work–family policies and poor childcare availability. There is a need for policies aimed at regulating WFH from a gender-equality perspective.

Ameliorating the profound gender wage gap in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry among the APEC members: The could and should

This research aims to discover the challenges and propose effective strategies to empower women by ameliorating the gender wage gap in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry among the APEC members. The study applied document review analysis and conducted focus group discussions, where thirty female professionals in the AEC industry from APEC participated. The results report four challenges contributing to the gender wage gap, namely gender bias and stereotyping, work-family conflicts, physical strength and lack of transparency. Based on the challenges, the study suggests several key strategies focusing on women's participation in the AEC industry, encouraging genderfriendly workplaces, healthy and safe workplaces, and fair career development opportunities to reduce the gender wage gap effectively. The findings suggest that by increasing awareness of the value of women's involvement in the AEC industry, pragmatic policies should be formulated for APEC members to break down the barriers to the gender wage gap.

Navigating the Language Labyrinth: Evaluating the Impact of Communication Strategies in Anti-Gender Pay Gap Campaigns

Navigating the Language Labyrinth: Evaluating the Impact of Communication Strategies in Anti-Gender Pay Gap Campaigns

Gender earnings gap and glass ceiling at Spanish universities

Gender earnings gap and glass ceiling at Spanish universities

Labor market segmentation and the gender wage gap: Evidence from China.

Although the Chinese government has implemented a variety of measures, the gender wage gap in 21st century China has not decreased. A significant body of literature has studied this phenomenon using sector segmentation theory, but these studies have overlooked the importance of the collective economy beyond the public and private sectors. Moreover, they have lacked assessment of the gender wage gap across different wage groups, hindering an accurate estimation of the gender wage gap in China, and the formulation of appropriate recommendations. Utilizing micro-level data from 2004, 2008, and 2013, this paper examines trends in the gender wage gap within the public sector, private sector, and collective economy. Employing a selection bias correction based on the multinomial logit model, this study finds that the gender wage gap is smallest and most stable within the public sector. Furthermore, the private sector surpasses the collective economy in this period, becoming the sector with the largest gender wage gap. Meanwhile, a recentered influence function regression reveals a substantial gender wage gap among the low-wage population in all three sectors, as well as among the high-wage population in the private sector. Additionally, employing Brown wage decomposition, this study concludes that inter-sector, rather than intra-sector, differences account for the largest share of the gender wage gap, with gender discrimination in certain sectors identified as the primary cause. Finally, this paper provides policy recommendations aimed at addressing the gender wage gap among low-wage groups and within the private sector.