Gender Differences In Social Support Research Articles

Gender Differences in Social Support and Depression among Injection Drug Users in Houston, Texas

Background: Injection drug is the second most frequent HIV/AIDS exposure in the United States. Social support and depression may mediate risky behaviors among drug injectors. Objectives: To describe differences in perceived social support and depressive symptoms between male and female injection drug users, and to describe factors associated with depressive symptoms. Methods: Using respondent-driven sampling, we recruited and interviewed injection drug users in Houston, Texas. Data were from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National HIV Behavioral Surveillance Program. We used the short Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D 10) and scales for perceived social support from family, friends, and significant others from the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Four-hundred seventy-one participants had complete data and were included in this analysis. Results: Seventy-five percent of male and female participants had CES-D scores indicating depressive symptoms. In a multivariate logistic regression, depressive symptoms among men were positively associated with frequent use of speedballs (injecting heroin and cocaine together) and never having tested for HIV, and negatively associated with perceived social support from a special person. Among women, depressive symptoms were positively associated with currently smoking cigarettes, having no health insurance, and more years of injection drug use, and negatively associated with perceived social support from a special person. Conclusions: Lack of social support from a special person or significant other was associated with depressive symptoms in both males and females. Our findings suggest that depression and social support should be addressed when developing HIV prevention programs among injection drug users.

Gender Variations in the Levels of Social Support and Risk of Elder Mistreatment in a Chinese Community Population

This study aimed to examine gender differences in social support and risk of elder mistreatment (EM) in a community-dwelling Chinese population. The authors conducted a cross-sectional study of 141 women and 270 men aged 60 years or above. EM was assessed using the modified Vulnerability to Abuse Screening Scale (VASS), and social support was measured using the Social Support Index (SSI). After adjusting for sociodemographic factors, socioeconomic status, depression, loneliness, and medical conditions, lower levels of social support were associated with an increased odds of EM in men (odds ratio [OR] = 5.35, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.18-13.15, p < .001) and in women (OR = 5.39, 95% CI = 1.95-14.85, p < .001). Perceived social support, but not instrumental social support, was associated with increased odds of EM in men and women. These findings could have important implication for health care professional and social services agencies in the detection, management, and prevention of EM among the aging Chinese population.

Social Support for Physical Activity of Middle School Students

To explore gender and age differences in social support and their relationship with physical activity. This cross-sectional study with enhanced reliability due to repeated measures involved 105 boys and 101 girls. Information on sources and forms of social support, as well as physical activity, was obtained from students, who completed the same questionnaire twice, 2 weeks apart. Boys, compared with girls, were more likely to name fathers and less likely to identify sisters. Compared with older boys, older girls were less likely to identify fathers. Older girls were less likely than both younger girls and older boys to name brothers. Students who identified fathers reported more minutes and days of physical activity and had a stronger physical activity self-definition than those who did not name fathers. Students who selected peers and sisters had more minutes of physical activity and a stronger physical activity self-definition, respectively, than those who did not name peers and sisters. Transportation and encouragement were related to physical activity. Gender differences in social support are not uniform across age groups. Awareness of these differences can inform the development of appropriate physical activity programs.

Gender Differences in Social Support for Socially Anxious Individuals

Given that social anxiety disorder is a common, chronic, debilitating disorder and socially anxious women appear to have different experiences related to social development and social support than men, it is essential that the gender differences in social anxiety and social support be understood. The present study examined perceived social support quantity and satisfaction in 23 women and 28 men seeking treatment for social anxiety disorder. Contrary to expectations, men and women did not differ on measures of social support. However, younger, unmarried women reported having smaller social support networks and less satisfaction with their social support networks than older, married women. Analyses of socially anxious men did not reveal such a pattern. The current study provides preliminary evidence that younger, single women have social support networks that are less satisfying than the social support networks of older, married women. Inclusion of social support modules within a cognitive behavioral treatment approach for social anxiety disorder may be warranted, particularly for young, unmarried women.

Gender Differences in Social Support: A Question of Skill or Responsiveness?

Spouses often report that wives provide better social support than husbands. Yet studies observing spouses' supportive interactions challenge this perception, finding no differences between husbands' and wives' supportive behaviors. This article offers reconciliation by suggesting that husbands and wives may differ, not in their skill at providing support, but in their responsiveness to their partners' changing needs over time. Observational and diary data from couples confirmed that, whereas husbands and wives did not differ on average in the support they provided each other, they did differ in the timing of that support. Wives tended to provide better support on days that their husbands experienced greater stress. However, when wives experienced greater stress, their husbands displayed both support and negativity.

Structural gender differences in perceived social support

Abstract Gender is an important influence on support-relevant social interactions, however findings of studies on gender differences in social support are not definitive. Although differences between men and women in the various social support measures have been found in numerous studies, neither the cause nor the explanatory process is known. This study examines gender differences in the dimensionality of social support. A large sample ( N =3210) from the general population of women (60%) and men aged between 18 and 65 years old (Mean age=34.1) responded to a brief scale with items assessing the distinct functions of the perceived availability of social support. Confirmatory factor analyses yielded one factor in the women's sample that measures global social support perceived, and two in the men's. The first factor in the men's sample measures emotional support (providing empathy, caring, validation of self-worth), and the second measures instrumental support (e.g. practical assistance or financial aid). We concluded that there are gender differences in the structure of perceived social support and that these differences can be explained by socialization experiences and social roles associated with gender.

Differential effects of support providers on adolescents' mental health

This prospective study examined the differential effects of parent, teacher, and peer social support on depression and self-esteem of 217 adolescents, ages 15 to 18. Results indicate that female adolescents perceived significantly more support from friends than male adolescents did, whereas male adolescents perceived significantly more support from fathers than female adolescents did. No gender differences were found in perceptions of support from mothers or teachers. Boys and girls perceived the least amount of support from fathers compared with other providers. Multisample structural equation models were invariant across female and male groups for the effects of support providers on each outcome. The joint effects of the support providers explained a significant amount of variance in time 2 depression and self-esteem, after controlling for both at time 1, suggesting that social support has important effects on symptoms. The separate effects of mothers, teachers, and friends had similarly sized, significant negative effects on time 2 depression. Self-esteem was significantly, positively affected by friend and teacher support. Key words: adolescence; depression! mental health; self-esteem; social support ********** Current theory and research suggest that not all social support is the same. Two important influences on the effectiveness of support are the characteristics of the provider and of the recipient (Antonucci, 1983). For example, alternate support providers such as parents and peers differentially affect adolescent outcomes such as mental health and academic achievement (Barone, Iscoe, Trickett, & Schmid, 1998; Garnefski & Diekstra, 1996; Richman, Rosenfeld, & Bowen, 1998; Wentzel, 1998). In terms of recipient characteristics, research has consistently found gender differences in the amount and kind of support that adolescents receive and from whom they receive it (Berndt, 1982; Cauce, Reid, Landesman, & Gonzales, 1990; Colarossi, 2001; Furman & Buhrmester, 1992; Levitt, Guacci-Franco, & Levitt, 1993). For example, girls receive more support from peers than boys do, whereas boys receive more support from family sources than girls do. If these supporters have different impacts on developmental outcomes, then balance and appropriate use are the challenges for adolescents as they begin to diversify their support networks. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of studies that simultaneously contrast the effects of multiple providers and recipients on specific adolescent outcomes. A descriptive study published recently in Social Work Research (Colarossi, 2001) related findings from a sample of adolescents that showed gender differences in the amount and satisfaction of support received by various providers. The prospective study presented here follows up the same sample to test the differential relation of support from three contexts (that is, family, school, and peers) on depression and self-esteem with adolescents over the course of one year. Multisample structural equation models were used to examine gender differences in the predictive models. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION This study builds on a foundation of theory and research describing developmental processes, gender differences in social support, and the effects of support on mental health. Kahn and Antonucci's (1980) Convoy Model of social support posits that social support develops over time from person-environment interaction that involves attachment processes, social role requirements, and characteristics of the social network composition and its support provisions. These interactions have aspects of both stability and change over the life course, in which social context is an important moderating factor in addition to an individual's personality style, role demands, and emotional and behavioral responses. This life-course perspective is important for several reasons. An individual's need for social support varies with age-related changes such as dependence on others, social roles related to occupational and social status (for example, student, parent, employee or employer, or friend or spouse), and changes in residence (for example, living with family, living on college campus, or living in different neighborhoods). …

Adolescent gender differences in social support: Structure, function, and provider type

The study discussed in this article used survey data on 364 adolescents to examine gender differences in perceptions of support across three different constructs: (1) structural support related to the number of adults versus friends; (2) the quantity of support provided by mothers, fathers, peers, and teachers; (3) satisfaction with support from friends and family. Results indicate that young women report a greater number of supportive friends and receive more frequent support from their friends than do young men. However, young men are just as satisfied with friend support as are young women. Ho gender differences were found in the number of adult supporters, but males received more frequent support from fathers. Nonparental adults emerged as important sources of support for both genders. Implications for practice with adolescents are discussed. Key words: adolescents; gender; social support networks ********** Changes in interpersonal relationships during adolescence have been the subject of increased scrutiny because of the diversity of relationships teenagers have with peers, family, and other adults. Social support is one aspect of relationship quality that varies with age and type of relationship (Levitt, Guacci-Franco, & Levitt, 1993) and has been found to significantly affect a variety of mental health and academic outcomes during adolescence (Garnefski & Diekstra, 1996; Morrison, Laughlin, Miguel, Douglas, & Widaman, 1997; Richman, Rosenfeld, & Bowen, 1998; Wentzel, 1998). However, social support is a multifaceted construct in need of disaggregation and specification across structural and functional dimensions as well as by provider type and recipient characteristics. Predictive research has begun to suggest that different providers and different support dimensions differentially affect outcomes, and recipient characteristics (such as personality factors, race, and gender) can affect the type and amount of support adolescents perceive (Colarossi & Lynch, 2000; Henly, 1997). In addition, predictive research can be enhanced by a more detailed research foundation that describes the interrelationships among these areas. Gender is an important area of study because gender differences affect outcomes such as mental health and academic achievement among adolescents and because of the research that indicates that social support can serve as a protective factor for the problems of adolescence. Are there descriptive differences between males and females in the type and amount of social support and by provider that have not been fully explored? Can these differences provide a better foundation for further predictive research in this area? To address these questions, studies during the past decade focused on specifying adolescents' supportive relationships across social network members such as parents, teachers, siblings, peers, and familial and nonfamilial adults. Studies also have examined gender differences in these relationships. However, few studies explored gender differences across various providers and support constructs, and even fewer applied this information to social work practice. Furthermore, to incorporate interventions that increase support between adolescents and others in their lives, social workers need to understand the developmental context of adolescent social support and the way in which adolescents perceive support from others. Recent research has shown that 30 percent to 50 percent of family support workers rate their training and knowledge in the area of adolescent development and how to promote social network assets as inadequate or poor (Scales, 1997). Gender-sensitive practice also necessitates the understanding of gender differences that exist in these processes. The purpose of this article is three-fold. First, it reviews information about social support in the context of adolescent development and the influence of gender. …

Gender Differences in Adjustment to Bereavement: An Empirical and Theoretical Review

The loss of a marital partner results in substantial increases in morbidity and mortality among both men and women, but the effects are relatively greater for widowers than for widows in the acute grieving period. Evidence is reviewed, and explanations of the pattern are examined. An interpretation in terms of gender differences in social support (cf. M. Stroebe & W. Stroebe, 1983 ), although plausible, has not yet been empirically confirmed. Likewise, with respect to gender differences in coping styles, women are more confrontive and expressive of their emotions than men, but there has been little validation of the generally accepted grief work hypothesis (working through grief by women brings about their better recovery). Cognitive processes underlying effective coping with bereavement are analyzed, and a stressor-specific framework, the dual-process model of coping with loss, is suggested to help explain gender differences in health outcomes.

Gender differences in adjustment to bereavement: An empirical and theoretical review.

The loss of a marital partner results in substantial increases in morbidity and mortality among both men and women, but the effects are relatively greater for widowers than for widows in the acute grieving period. Evidence is reviewed, and explanations of the pattern are examined. An interpretation in terms of gender differences in social support (cf. M. Stroebe & W. Stroebe, 1983), although plausible, has not yet been empirically confirmed. Likewise, with respect to gender differences in coping styles, women are more confrontive and expressive of their emotions than men, but there has been little validation of the generally accepted grief work hypothesis (working through grief by women brings about their better recovery). Cognitive processes underlying effective coping with bereavement are analyzed, and a stressor-specific framework, the dual-process model of coping with loss, is suggested to help explain gender differences in health outcomes.

Social support at age 33: the influence of gender, employment status and social class

This paper investigates the conceptualisation and operationalisation of social support and it's relationship to gender, employment status and social class. Clarification of these relationships is sought in order to better understand associations between social support and health. We used data from the 33-year survey of the 1958 British birth cohort study. Individual items and subscales of practical and emotional support were examined. In general, men had lower support than women and social classes IV and V had lower support than classes I and II. Emotional support, either from personal (for example, from friends or family), or combined with organisational sources of support (such as from a church or a financial institution), showed consistent gender and social class patterns. This suggests that emotional support is a robust concept across socio-demographic groups. Less consistent trends were found for practical support, in that socio-demographic trends depended on how practical support was measured. In particular, it depended on whether both personal and organisational sources of support were examined. Gender differences in social support were large and might therefore be expected to contribute to gender differences in health, whereas social class differences in social support were modest, suggesting a minor explanatory role for this factor in accounting for inequalities in health.

Gender, social relations and mental health: prospective findings from an occupational cohort (Whitehall II study)

Gender differences in social support tend to suggest that women have larger social networks and both give and receive more support than men. Nevertheless, although social support has been identified as protective of mental health, women have higher rates of psychological distress than men. We examine the prospective association between social support and psychological distress by gender in a cohort study of middle aged British Civil Servants, the Whitehall II study. In this sample we found that women have a larger number of close persons than men although men have larger social networks. We also found that the effects of marital status, social support within and outside the workplace and social networks on subsequent occurrence of psychological distress were similar for men and women independently of baseline mental health status.

Gender, social support, and cardiovascular responses to stress.

Laboratory research indicates that the presence of a supportive other can reduce physiological responses to a stressor. Whether there are gender differences, either on the part of the provider or the recipient, in this social support effect is explored. Such differences might shed some light on the frequent epidemiological reports of gender differences in social support and health. Male and female subjects gave an impromptu speech and received either standardized supportive or nonsupportive feedback from a male or female confederate. Blood pressure and heart rate were monitored continuously during baseline and speech periods. Speakers with a supportive female audience showed a systolic increase of 25 mm Hg over baseline. Those with a nonsupportive female audience increased 36 mm Hg. A supportive male audience led to increases of 32 mm Hg, and a nonsupportive male audience 28 mm Hg. There was no significant effect of gender of subject. Results indicate that social support provided by women reduced cardiovascular changes for both male and female speakers compared with presence of a nonsupportive female audience. Social support from men did not. These findings suggest a possible mechanism that might help explain the epidemiological literature on the relationship between gender, social support, and health. The findings are consistent with the notion that married men are healthier because they marry women. Women do not profit as much from marriage or suffer as much from separation, in terms of health outcomes, because the support they gain or lose is the less effective support of a man. These findings render more plausible the possibility that differences in social support might contribute to health differences, through the dampening of cardiovascular responses to stress.

Gender Differences in Social Support: Mental Health Consequences among the Homeless

We examine gender differences in patterns of social support among the homeless, testing genderspecific mediation models of the effects of social supports on psychological distress for a systematic sample of 150 homeless men and women in Birmingham, Alabama. Our research demonstrates that homeless women receive both more instrumental and more expressive support. These supports, however, do not advantage homeless women. The distress process appears different for males and females. For males and females, life events stimulate social support, but the effect is nearly twice as large for women. Life events' effects on mastery differ with women's mastery being affected negatively and men's being unaffected by undesirable life events. Gender differences in the mediation process are also notable. For males, life events increase supports; supports, in turn, are associated with lower depression. For women, while life events also increase supports, these supports are associated with higher depression.

Social Support: Gender Differences in Multiple Sclerosis Spousal Caregivers

The purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in social support of spousal caregivers of persons with multiple sclerosis (MS). The sample consisted of 37 male and 28 female caregivers of individuals with MS. It was found that female caregivers scored significantly higher than males on the total number of resources available, perceived social support and the perceived availability of friends and self-help groups. There was a positive relationship between caregiver-perceived social support and the ability of the mate to perform intimate functions. Caregiver-perceived social support was also found to be positively correlated with the caregiver's level of commitment to the spousal relationship.

Gender Differences in Social Support Among Inmates

This paper presents the results from two independent studies investigating social support among correctional inmates focusing on the relationship between social support and psychological well-being. One study is based on males at a maximum security prison, while the other is based on females at a high medium security prison. The female inmates were found to have higher levels of social support than the sample of male inmates. It was also found that there is a relationship between social support and psychological well-being for the incarcerated women, but was not found to exist for the male inmates. These findings are consistent with the social support literature which identifies gender differences in non-institutionalized populations.

Gender differences in social support and physical health.

A large body of prospective data has accumulated linking social support to health, and most social scientists agree that low levels of support are associated with poor physical and mental health. Unfortunately, most of the research has been limited to White men. When women and people of color are included in the designs, the relationships between social support and physical health are more complicated. Prospective population-based studies provide evidence that low support is associated with increased risk of mortality in women. However, in several studies, results indicated that, for specific age groups, women with high social support have increased risk of mortality. Factors that may contribute to the observed gender differences in the social support-physical health relationship are discussed. Future research should include adequate numbers of women and more sophisticated measures of social support to move the field forward.

Gender differences in social support and physical health.

Gender differences in social support and physical health.

Gender differences in social support among older adults

The purpose of this study was to determine whether exposure to life stress can help explain gender differences in the use of social support. Findings from a longitudinal study suggest that as the number of stressful life events increase, elderly men and women are equally likely to become more involved in their social network, while gender differences emerge only in response to chronic financial strain. Further analysis indicates that elderly women are more likely than elderly men to report that the support they received increased their feelings of personal control.

Perceived social support in gays and lesbians in cohabitating relationships.

In a descriptive study, I sought to identify the providers of social support for 69 gay and 50 lesbian cohabitating couples. I also (a) compared differences between gays and lesbians on the most frequent and total number of providers of support and satisfaction with social support; (b) assessed differences between partners within the couples on the social support dimensions and related these differences to relationship quality; and (c) related the social support dimensions to psychological adjustment. For both gays and lesbians, the most frequent social support providers, in order, were friends, partners, family, and coworkers. Gay and lesbian couples (and partners within these couples) did not differ on any of the social support dimensions. However, discrepancies between partners' scores were related to low relationship quality, especially for lesbians. For both gays and lesbians, high social support was related to psychological adjustment. The findings indicate that gender differences in social support are not universal, that such differences are probably mediated by socialization processes, and that social support is linked to relationship quality and to psychological adjustment.