Gender Differences In Patterns Research Articles

Gender differences in patterns of cartilage loss: Data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative

OBJECTIVEUnderstanding gender-specific differences in patterns of cartilage loss can improve our knowledge of the pathogenesis of knee osteoarthritis (KOA) development and progression and may inform clinical trials of treatments for KOA. The goal of our observational study was to examine gender differences in patterns of cartilage loss in the central weight-bearing regions of the femur. METHODSWe measured cartilage volume change in the indexed knee of 700 subjects with Kellgren-Lawrence (KL) 1, 2, or 3 from the OAI for four follow-up periods (BL to 24mo, BL to 48mo, BL to 72mo, and BL to 96mo) using the local area cartilage segmentation (LACS) method. Briefly, the LACS method uses robust coordinate systems fixed to anatomical landmarks to measure patterns of change in cartilage volume in sub-regions using responsiveness heat maps. RESULTSWe observed a statistically significant gender difference in cartilage change in the medial femur (MF), lateral femur (LF), and medial tibia (MT). The heat maps, showed loss was primarily in the posterior central weight-bearing portion of the LF and more general in the LT and MF. Similar patterns were observed for each of the four follow-up periods. CONCLUSIONSThe LACS method was capable of illustrating gender-specific differences in patterns of cartilage loss that may offer insight into the variation of gender differences in the natural history of KOA and may be useful in evaluating the benefit of interventions for KOA.

Sex and Gender Differences in Simultaneous Alcohol and Cannabis Use: a Narrative Review.

The aim is to review recent literature on sex and gender differences in patterns of use, motives, pharmacological effects, and consequences of simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use (SAC). Men engage in SAC more frequently than women. Women may have more substance-specific motives for use, while men tend to consistently endorse social/enhancement motives for both alcohol and cannabis. Regarding pharmacological effects, women experience the same subjective effects as men do at lower levels of use, with some evidence that women modulate cannabis use during simultaneous use episodes to avoid greater subjective intoxication. Finally, women appear more vulnerable to experiencing a range of positive and negative consequences from SAC relative to men. Research has identified several important sex/gender differences in SAC and its correlates and consequences. However, research has primarily focused on white and cisgender populations, with a need for more research among racial/ethnic and gender minorities.

BaYaka forager food sharing networks in the Congo Basin: The roles of gender homophily and kin sharing

AbstractObjectivesFood sharing is a costly form of cooperation that was likely critical to human evolutionary success, including the emergence of human's life history strategy. Food sharing in human communities may be maintained through a number of pathways, including direct dyadic reciprocity, reputation‐based processes, and kin‐biased exchange. Differences in reproductive demands, labor, and cultural norms may also result in gendered differences in cooperative networks. Here, we examine cooperative networks in egalitarian BaYaka foragers from the Congo Basin.Materials and MethodsWe collected social network data from 112 adults in 41 households in this subsistence community. We implement a Bayesian latent network model to assess individual‐, dyadic‐, and block‐level predictors of food sharing partners.ResultsConditioning on covariates, we found limited evidence for direct dyadic reciprocity in food sharing. Despite local norms regarding prestige avoidance, we found status‐based homophily. High‐status individuals—council members and local healers—were more likely to share with one another. Importantly, our results highlight gender differences in patterns of food sharing, interacting with genetic relatedness. Women were more likely to share with one another, especially with kin as genetic relatedness increased.DiscussionOur results align with evolutionary framing emphasizing kin selection in costly cooperation. The results showing that women cooperate with other women, particularly kin, also complement sex‐based patterns in some other mammalian species, potentially reflecting the social support necessary to manage reproductive costs and childcare. BaYaka women's subsistence productivity and local cultural dynamics for autonomy and egalitarianism may likewise help facilitate women's preferential cooperation with one another.

Who wants women to run? an investigation of gender differences in patterns of support among Irish local election candidates

ABSTRACT Interventions aimed at increasing women’s numeric representation in politics tend to solve the problem by tackling a lack of demand among gatekeepers. However, even where there is an increase in demand, it is still important to consider what is happening on the supply-side; that is, the circumstances under which individuals will put themselves forward to run for office. One factor that has been identified as an important predictor of whether someone will choose to do so is whether they receive encouragement to run. This paper explores whether such encouragement is gendered. We investigate this question using a unique data set of candidates who ran in the 2019 Irish local elections. We find that female candidates received more encouragement to run than their male counterparts and that they were also more likely to receive such encouragement from particular sources (elected politicians, spouses, family members).

EXPLORING GENDER‐DEPENDENT DIFFERENCES IN PATTERNS OF CARTILAGE LOSS USING RESPONSIVENESS HEAT MAPS: DATA FROM THE OAI

Understanding gender-specific differences in patterns of cartilage loss can improve our knowledge of the pathogenesis of knee osteoarthritis (KOA) development and progression and may inform clinical trials of treatments for KOA. Quantitative cartilage assessment using segmentation software offers an ideal method for appreciating these patterns. The goal of our study was to examine gender differences in patterns of cartilage loss in the central weight-bearing regions of the medial femur (MF), lateral femur (LF), medial tibia (MT), and lateral tibia (LT) using cartilage segmentation software. We measured cartilage volume change in the indexed knee of 480 subjects with Kellgren-Lawrence (KL) 2 and 3 from the OAI at the baseline (BL) and 96-month (mo) time points using the local area cartilage segmentation (LACS) method. Briefly, the LACS method uses robust coordinate systems fixed to anatomical landmarks to find the cartilage volume or thickness in consistent sub-regions on each cartilage plate. (See Figure 1.) Using the coordinate systems, LACS permits assessment of change in much smaller sub-regions through the use of responsiveness heat maps. The average age, BMI, and KL score were 59.5years, 28.7kg/m 2 , 2.03 (males) and 60.5years, 28.8kg/m 2 , 1.99 (females). Figure 2 shows heat map images of the change in cartilage volume from BL to 96mo for males and females. The intensity of the colors (red for loss, blue for gain) represents the standardized response mean (SRM) value at each location. We observed more focused thinning for females in the lateral/posterior portion of the MF and the medial side of the LT. An increase in cartilage thickness in the posterior side of the LF sub-region was also observed for females, as shown with the blue area. Similar patterns were observed for other follow-up time points (i.e., BL to 24mo, BL to 48mo, and BL to 72mo) and when stratifying by age, BMI and KL score. Heat maps of smaller subregions were capable of illustrating gender-specific differences in patterns of cartilage loss, differences that may offer insight into the variation of gender differences in the natural history of KOA. Heat maps of cartilage thickness changes may be useful in evaluating the benefit of interventions for KOA. NIH AR071409 none CORRESPONDENCE ADDRESS: jduryea@bwh.harvard.edu .

An Evaluation of Visual Perception Visual Memory Cognitive Functions and Emotional Status among Genders in Elderly Subjects

Background: Gender differences in visual memory and perception and cognitive test performance have been significantly influenced by factors like sex
 Objective: The current study aimed to evaluate the gender differences in patterns of cognitive test performance and visual perception in healthy elderly individuals.
 Methods: Cognitive functions and visual perception was analyzed using clock drawing test and picture identification test in 20 elderly men and women (10 each) and their emotional status was assessed using depression scale
 Results: The results revealed that females had a better visual memory and depth perception compared to men and the value was statistically significant at p<0.05. Females performed better than men on tests of Picture identification and were better in phonemic verbal skills compared to male men and the value was statistically significant at p<0.05
 Conclusion: The present study concluded an innovative finding that women were better in their performance related to visual depth perception and cognitive functions.

The Challenges of Working with Child Abuse and Neglect: Barriers to Disclosure and Intervention, Adverse Outcomes, and Perplexing Presentations

The Challenges of Working with Child Abuse and Neglect: Barriers to Disclosure and Intervention, Adverse Outcomes, and Perplexing Presentations

Gender Differences in Methamphetamine Use Initiation and Trajectory of Use Among People Who Use Methamphetamine in a Mexico-U.S. Border City.

Methamphetamine (meth) is a stimulant increasing in use and its prevalence has not yet been determined on the Mexico-U.S. border. Few studies highlight gender differences in meth use, trajectory, and initiation by gender. Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, across the border from El Paso, Texas, has an established stimulant using population and lies on drug trafficking route. This study assessed gender differences in drug and meth use patterns among people meth people use meth. This cross-sectional study included 150 people with recent meth use, age 21 years or older, and living in Ciudad Juárez. Measures collected included sociodemographic characteristics, cross-border mobility, drug and meth use characteristics. Statistically (p-value<0.05) and marginally (p-value<0.10) significant gender differences were determined using appropriate bivariate tests. The sample included 45 cisgender women, five transgender women, and 100 cisgender men with a mean age of 30.9 years. Men had significantly higher rates of snorting meth by nose in powder or rock forms while trans/women more frequently using meth in pill form. Men had higher rates of crossing the border for work, with meth and to obtain meth. Trans/women reported higher rates of acquiring meth from main sexual partner and initiating meth use in Mexico. There are gender differences in patterns of meth use and initiation. Sample of people who use meth in general population can be achieved. These findings point to a need for evidence-based meth use reduction treatment programs that are culturally appropriate and tailored for gender.

Gender Differences in Patterns and Correlates of Continued Substance Use among Patients in Methadone Maintenance Treatment

Background Continued substance use is common during opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment. There are still inconsistencies in how continued substance use and concurrent patterns of substance use among patients with OUD varies by gender. There is still more to learn regarding how factors associated with continued and concurrent use might differ for men and women in methadone maintenance treatment (MMT). Methods: This cross-sectional study examined predictors of concurrent substance use subgroups among patients receiving MMT. The sample included 341 (n = 161 women) MMT patients aged 18 and older from opioid treatment programs in Southern New England and the Pacific Northwest. Patients completed a survey assessing sociodemographic and clinical characteristics including past-month substance use. Latent class analyses were conducted by gender to identify groups based on substance use and determine predictors of those classes. Results: Three-class solutions were the optimal fit for both men and women. For both genders, the first subgroup was characterized as Unlikely Users (59.8% women, 52.8% men). Classes 2 and 3 among women were Cannabis/Opioid Users (23.7%) and Stimulant/Opioid Users (13.0%). Among men, Classes 2 and 3 consisted of Alcohol/Cannabis Users (21.9%) and Cannabis/Stimulant/Opioid Users (25.3%). Ever using Suboxone (buprenorphine/naloxone) and depression/anxiety symptoms were significantly linked to substance use group among women, whereas homelessness and employment status were significantly associated with substance use group among men. Conclusions: This study furthers understanding of gender differences in factors associated with continued substance use and distinctive patterns of concurrent substance use that may guide tailored treatments among patients MMT.

Gender differences in patterns of relationship between body mass index and AF incidence

Abstract Background Obesity is reportedly associated with the new incidence of atrial fibrillation (AF). However, gender differences in patterns of relationship between body mass index (BMI) and the risk of AF are unknown. Methods We analyzed 21,382 middle-aged Japanese subjects (10923 men, 10459 women) without AF from a cohort of employees undergoing annual health examinations, with a follow-up period of 4.8±3.7 years. We examined the relationship between BMI at baseline to AF incidence in unadjusted and adjusted analyses. This relationship was also studied using linear and quadratic models. Results AF had developed in 137 subjects (119 men; mean age, 54.4±8.2 years; incidence, 2.19 and 0.38 per 1000 person-years in men and women, respectively). In multivariable Cox proportional-hazard models, increasing age (hazard ratio [HR], 2.72 per year; 95% CI, 2.22 to 3.33; P&amp;lt;0.001), male gender (HR, 3.28; 95% CI, 1.86 to 5.76; P&amp;lt;0.001) and BMI (HR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.15; P=0.007) were associated with the new incidence of AF in all cohorts. The shape of the BMI-incident AF relationship showed a linear association in women and a J-shaped association in men. (Figure) In particular, a U-shaped relationship was observed in young men aged 40–49, with increased risk among those with higher BMI and with very low BMI. In analyses adjusted for comorbidities and risk factors for CV disease, the U-shaped AF incidence versus BMI curves were not attenuated, suggesting that other genetic or congenital factors may mediate this relationship. Conclusion Our results indicate that the shape of the BMI-incident AF relation differs by sex and in particular a U-shaped relationship was observed in young men. Patterns of relation among BMI and AF Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: None

Gender Differences in Reasons for Using Electronic Cigarettes and Product Characteristics: Findings From the 2018 ITC Four Country Smoking and Vaping Survey.

Little is known about why males are more likely to use electronic cigarettes (ECs) compared with females. This study examined gender differences in reasons for vaping and characteristics of EC used (device type, device capacity, e-liquid nicotine strength, and flavor). Data were obtained from 3938 current (≥18 years) at-least-weekly EC users who participated in Wave 2 (2018) ITC Four Country Smoking and Vaping Survey in Canada, the United States, England, and Australia. Of the sample, 54% were male. The most commonly cited reasons for vaping in females were "less harmful to others" (85.8%) and in males were "less harmful than cigarettes" (85.5%), with females being more likely to cite "less harmful to others" (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.64, p = .001) and "help cut down on cigarettes" (aOR = 1.60, p = .001) than males. Significant gender differences were found in EC device type used (χ 2 = 35.05, p = .043). Females were less likely to report using e-liquids containing >20 mg/mL of nicotine, and tank devices with >2 mL capacity (aOR = 0.41, p < .001 and aOR = 0.65, p = .026, respectively) than males. There was no significant gender difference in use of flavored e-liquids, with fruit being the most common flavor for both males (54.5%) and females (50.2%). There were some gender differences in reasons for vaping and characteristics of the product used. Monitoring of gender differences in patterns of EC use would be useful to inform outreach activities and interventions for EC use. Our findings provide some evidence of gender differences in reasons for vaping and characteristics of EC used. The most common reason for vaping reported by females was "less harmful to others," which may reflect greater concern by female vapers about the adverse effects of secondhand smoke compared with male vapers. Gender differences might be considered when designing gender-sensitive smoking cessation policies. Regarding characteristics of EC products used, we found gender differences in preferences for e-liquid nicotine strength and device capacity. Further studies should examine whether the observed gender differences in EC use reasons and product characteristics are predictive of smoking cessation. Furthermore, studies monitoring gender-based marketing of ECs may be considered.

Gender Differences in Prevalence and Patterns of Dietary Supplement Use in Elite Athletes

ABSTRACT Purpose: Dietary supplement use by athletes has been the topic of previous research; however, the lack of homogeneity among published studies makes it difficult to analyze the differences, if any, in the patterns of use between male and female athletes. The aim of this study was to determine gender differences in the patterns of dietary supplement use by elite athletes. Methods: A total of 504 elite athletes (329 males and 175 females) participating in individual and team sports completed a validated questionnaire on dietary supplement use during the preceding season. The dietary supplements were categorized according to the latest IOC consensus statement. Results: A higher proportion of male versus female athletes (65.3 versus 56.5%, p < .05) consumed dietary supplements. Both male and female athletes reported a similar mean consumption of dietary supplements (3.2 ± 2.1 versus 3.4 ± 2.3 supplements/season, respectively; p = .45). Protein supplements were the most commonly consumed supplements in male athletes (49.8%) and their prevalence was higher than in female athletes (29.3%, p < .01). In females, multivitamins (39.4%) and branched-chain amino acids (39.4%) were the most commonly consumed supplements and iron supplementation was more prevalent than in males (22.2% versus 10.2%, p = .01). A higher proportion of male athletes relied on themselves to plan dietary supplements use (48.0%), while female appeared to rely more on doctors (34.0%, p < .01). Conclusion: In summary, male athletes had a slightly higher prevalence in the use of supplements than their female counterparts, specifically regarding protein supplements, and were more involved in the self-prescription of supplements.

Mobile phone use pattern and addiction in relation to depression and anxiety.

University students with heavy smartphone use are vulnerable to smartphone addiction that could be related to depression and trait anxiety. To assess gender differences in patterns of smartphone use and addiction in relation to depression and trait anxiety among Saudi university students. This was a cross-sectional study of 1513 students of Taif University, Saudi Arabia. A self-reported questionnaire was used to collect demographic data and data on pattern of smartphone use. The Problematic Use of Mobile Phones (PUMP) scale was used to determine smartphone addiction. The Arabic validated version of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and Beck Depression Inventory were used to assess trait anxiety and depression, respectively. A female predominance was found for: prevalence of depression and trait anxiety, PUMP scores, duration of daily mobile use and number of daily calls. A significant positive correlation was found between PUMP score and depression and trait anxiety scores, duration of owning a smartphone, and average duration of each daily call. The PUMP scores were significantly higher in 6th year students, those from the theoretical college, single students, and students who used a smartphone for > 4 hours/day. Smartphone addiction is a major problem among Saudi university students, and it is associated with depression and trait anxiety. Future studies should aim to establish the best interventions to protect university students from the negative effects of smartphones.

Risk and protective factors for heroin use in a nationally representative sample of Ecuadorian youth

IntroductionRecent reports from a variety of sources indicate that heroin use among Ecuadorian adolescents is on the rise. In order to design effective prevention and intervention programs, research is needed that quantifies use and assesses risk and protective factors associated with use. MethodsThis study analyzed the National Survey of Drug Use, a nationally representative survey of 50,145 adolescents (49.6% female; M age = 14.92 years, SD = 1.74) conducted in Ecuador in 2015. ResultsOverall, 2.3% of the sample reported lifetime heroin use. Logistic regression analysis revealed that higher lifetime heroin use was associated with lifetime use of alcohol (Adj OR = .71 CI[.58, .86]), marijuana (Adj OR = 3.79 CI[3.17, 4.52]), and hard drugs (Adj OR = 16.33 CI[13.89, 19.21]), as well as with greater perceived access to heroin (Adj OR = 2.13 CI[1.93, 2.36]) and repeating more school grades (Adj OR = 1.66 CI[1.37, 2.01]). Higher levels of parental involvement (Adj OR = .95 CI[.91, .99]) were associated with a reduced risk of use. Risk and protective factors operated similarly across age and gender. ConclusionThese data suggest that targeting substance use early in adolescence, focusing on school engagement, enhancing parenting skills, and improving family climate may be important approaches to curbing heroin use among Ecuadorian teens. The relative absence of age and gender differences in patterns of risk and protection suggest that a universal prevention approach versus a targeted approach may be most effective.

Gender differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms across childhood and adolescence: A multi-group growth mixture model

BackgroundThis study sought to identify depression trajectories across childhood and to model a range of child and family predictors of whether a child may be on an increasing trajectory towards depressive disorder in adolescence. MethodsMulti-group growth mixture modelling (MGMM) was used on a sample of 4983 children from the Longitudinal Study of Australia Children (LSAC). Depressive symptoms of these children were assessed over 10-years with six time-points, administered every second year commencing at 4 years via the parent report version of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. Predictors of class membership were also examined. ResultsFour trajectories were found to be the best fitting model characterising low-stable (75%); decreasing (11%); increasing (9%); high and rising (6%) groups. Females were more likely to be in a trajectory of increasing depressive symptoms between 4 and 14 years of age than males. Reactive temperament and maternal depression at four and six years of age were consistent predictors of increasing and high trajectories while persistent temperament acts as a protective factor for females. LimitationsThe findings should be interpreted in the light of limitations due to common-method variance and the absence of diagnostic indicators of depressive disorder. ConclusionsWe conclude that there are gender differences in patterns of depressive symptoms from childhood to adolescence and meaningful predictors of these early developmental trajectories. Preventative interventions in childhood targeting parents with depression and children with temperamental difficulties may be indicated.

Gender Differences in Patterns and Trends in U.S. Homicide, 1976–2017

In the research literature on homicide, gender has typically received far less attention than other demographic characteristics, specifically the age and race of victims and offenders. To some extent this is understandable given that the overwhelming majority, almost three-quarters, of homicides in the United States involve a male killing another male. Therefore, the usual patterns of homicide mirror for the most part the patterns of male homicide. However, there are substantial differences in the trends and patterns of female offending and victimization that should not be obscured in the aggregate. In this article, we replicate previous work with updated data by using a national homicide database (the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Supplementary Homicide Reports) from 1976 through 2017, multiply imputed for missing data, to examine gender differences among victims and offenders in terms of characteristics such as age, race, weapon, circumstances, and victim–offender relationship.

Gender-based tobacco policies in Bangladesh and India: A prerequisite to counter the smokeless tobacco epidemic

ABSTRACTThis study examined gender differences in patterns of smokeless tobacco (SLT) use among various socioeconomic and demographic segments in Bangladesh and India, which are home to 80 percent of global SLT users and share similar sociocultural milieus. The objective was to provide evidence of whether gender-focused interventions and policies might be helpful for SLT cessation programs. Data from the Global Adult Tobacco Survey were used for the analysis. In Bangladesh, data were collected between July and August 2009, and 9,629 individuals were successfully interviewed. In India, data were collected from June 2009 to January 2010, and 69,296 individuals were interviewed. Tests of proportions revealed that the prevalence of SLT use was highest among women in Bangladesh (27.9 percent) and among men (32.9 percent) in India. Logistic regression models revealed that the odds of SLT use was lower among Bangladeshi females in the highest age category. However, in India, a similar observation was made only for females with rural residences. In addition, the odds of SLT use was less among those with a higher level of education and wealth, irrespective of the sex or country. The present findings suggest a need for gender-specific policies and interventions for SLT control.

Representations of women and drug use in policy: A critical policy analysis

Contemporary research in the drugs field has demonstrated a number of gender differences in patterns and experiences of substance use, and the design and provision of gender-responsive interventions has been identified as an important policy issue. Consequently, whether and how domestic drug policies attend to women and gender issues is an important question for investigation. This article presents a policy audit and critical analysis of Australian national and state and territory policy documents. It identifies and discusses two key styles of problematisation of women’s drug use in policy: 1) drug use and its effect on women’s reproductive role (including a focus on pregnant women and women who are mothers), and 2) drug use and its relationship to women’s vulnerability to harm (including violent and sexual victimisation, trauma, and mental health issues). Whilst these are important areas for policy to address, we argue that such representations of women who use drugs tend to reinforce particular understandings of women and drug use, while at the same time contributing to areas of ‘policy silence’ or neglect. In particular, the policy documents analysed are largely silent about the harm reduction needs of all women, as well as the needs of women who are not mothers, young women, older women, transwomen or other women deemed to be outside of dominant normative reproductive discourse. This analysis is important because understanding how women’s drug use is problematised and identifying areas of policy silence provides a foundation for redressing gaps in policy, and for assessing the likely effectiveness of current and future policy approaches.

Modelling Gender Differences in Drug Abuse Epidemics

Drug abuse is an issue of considerable concern due to its association with numerous public health problems. Mathematical models developed to describe the spread of drug abuse have generally assumed that the dynamics of drug use and treatment are substantially the same for women as men. However, research has revealed that the dynamics of women’s drug use and treatment are different in many ways from that of men’s. Understanding gender differences in patterns of drug use is essential to identify the influences of gender on the trends of drug abuse in order to develop appropriate and effective prevention programs. We formulate a sex structured compartmental model for the spread of drug abuse using nonlinear ordinary differential equations. The least squares curve fit routine (lsqcurvefit) in Matlab with optimization is used to estimate the parameter values. The model is fitted to data on individuals under substance abuse treatment centres of the Western Cape Province of South Africa and parameter values that give the best fit chosen. The projections carried out the long term trends of proportions for male and female rehabilitants. The results show that the proportion of male drug abusers in Cape Town is expected to continue to decrease whereas that of female drug abusers shall continue to increase but steadily. The estimated proportion of female drug abusers in specialist treatment centres of Cape Town was observed to be approximately $$34\%$$ by the year 2030.

Gender differences in patterns of drug use and sexual risky behaviour among crack cocaine users in Central Brazil

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to compare sociodemographic characteristics, patterns of drug use, and risky sexual behaviour among female and male users of crack cocaine.MethodsBetween 2012 and 2013, we conducted a cross-sectional study of 919 crack cocaine users (783 men and 136 women) in Central Brazil using face-to-face interviews. Blood samples were collected to test for syphilis. The Chi-Square Automatic Interaction Detector (CHAID) was used to explore the differences between genders. We implemented two models: the first model included previous incarceration and variables related to patterns of drug use, and the second model included variables related to sexual risky behaviours and syphilis exposure.ResultsWomen consumed more crack cocaine than men on a regular basis; however, poly-drug use was more common among men. More women than men reported exchanging sex for money and/or drugs and inconsistent condom use during sexual intercourse; women also reported more sexual partners. In addition, the frequency of sexual violence was higher for women than men. A higher proportion of women than men were positive for syphilis (27.2% vs. 9.2%; p < 0.001). The CHAID decision tree analysis identified seven variables that differentiated the genders: previous incarceration, marijuana use, daily crack cocaine consumption, age at first illicit drug use, sexual violence, exchange of sex for money and/or drugs, and syphilis exposure.ConclusionOur findings demonstrate a difference in patterns of crack cocaine consumption and sexual risky behaviours between genders, thus indicating a need for gender-specific interventions in this population.