Gender Differences In Mean Levels Research Articles

Age and gender differences in the value development of Dutch adults in 11 years of longitudinal data

Value development over the life-span is rarely studied due to theory and data limitations. We use the LISS data, a Dutch longitudinal dataset, to study value change in adults aged 25–70 over 11 years from 2008 to 2019 (N=10,860), using the neo- socioanalyitcal model (NSM) as a theoretical framework. We find few cohort differences, differences between age groups and non-linear value change within individuals that continues until late adulthood. Gender differences in mean-levels are stable except in universalism and self-direction, while gender differences in rates of change are observed. We conclude that the NSM provides a fruitful framework to interpret value change as a maturation process toward becoming functioning members of society along gendered and age-graded normative stages.

The Development of Vocational Interests in Early Adolescence: Stability, Change, and State-Trait Components

Vocational interests predict major life outcomes such as job performance, college major choice, and life goals. It is therefore important to gain a better understanding of their development during the crucial years of late childhood and early adolescence, when trait-like interests are starting to develop. The present study investigated the development of vocational interests in a longitudinal sample, comprising N = 3,876 participants—assessed at four time points from ages 11 to 14. Stability, state-trait variance components, mean-level development, and gender differences in mean-levels of Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC) dimensions were examined. Stabilities were moderate for all dimensions, but Realistic, Investigative, Social, and Conventional interests became more stable over time. For Realistic, Artistic, Social, and Conventional interests, the trait variance increased over time. At age 14, all dimensions had substantial trait variance components. The mean-levels of Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, and Conventional interests decreased over the 3 years (–0.44 < d < –0.24). Initial gender differences—with girls having higher Artistic and Social interests and boys having higher Realistic and Investigative interests—increased over time. By investigating the development of vocational interests in late childhood and early adolescence, we complement previous findings and provide first insights about state-trait proportions in early adolescence.

Ocenjevanje temperamenta v zgodnjem mladostništvu: Psihometrične značilnosti vprašalnika EATQ-R-SF

The study explored the psychometric characteristics of the Revised Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire (EATQ-R-SF). Based on data of 238 early adolescents, we examined the factor structure of the EATQ-R-SF, reliability, and gender differences in mean levels of trait scores. The results showed a satisfactory fit to the models, although the fit indices for some subscales did not reach the recommended values. Internal consistency of the scales was satisfactory. Girls exhibited higher levels of fear, pleasure sensitivity, affiliation and positive emotionality than boys. The reliability of scores was appropriate for use in research, although it would need further improvement.

Gender differences and roles of two science self-efficacy beliefs in predicting post-college outcomes

The end of college is a key transition point when students prepare for the workforce or graduate school, and when competence beliefs that have been shaped throughout college play a particularly important role in decision-making processes. This study examined the roles of two competence beliefs, self-efficacy for scientific tasks and science academic self-efficacy, during the final year of college. A structural equation model was used to examine science research self-efficacy and science academic self-efficacy as predictors of post-graduation science career intentions and life satisfaction; prior achievement was also included as a predictor of competence beliefs and post-graduation outcomes. Findings indicated that both types of self-efficacy predicted career intentions and life satisfaction. To better understand the processes that contribute to gender gaps in certain science careers, gender differences in mean levels of self-efficacy and in the structural relations among the variables of interest were examined using multi-group analyses. Females reported lower academic self-efficacy, despite having similar levels of prior achievement and outcomes; structural relations also appeared to vary by gender. Results extend theoretical understanding of the roles of two distinct forms of self-efficacy and the potential mechanisms explaining gender gaps in science fields.

Peer Victimization and Depressive Symptoms During Adolescence: Examining the Roles of Social Support and Internalizing Coping

The purpose of this study was to examine how two coping strategies together moderate the relationship between peer victimization and adjustment among young adolescents. Sixth-grade adolescents from California, Oregon, and Wisconsin ( N = 1,058) self-reported peer victimization, depressive symptoms, and their utilization of social support seeking and internalizing coping. A regression analysis showed a significant three-way interaction between peer victimization, internalizing coping, and social support seeking in predicting depressive symptoms. Further analyses revealed that social support seeking only buffered the negative effects of peer victimization for participants who scored high on internalizing coping. Despite mean-level gender differences in these variables, gender did not moderate this association, suggesting that social support is an effective buffer against depressive symptoms following peer victimization for both boys and girls. These results suggest that attending to the variety of coping strategies adolescents employ simultaneously will help further our understanding of peer victimization outcomes.

Gender differences in the relation between the late positive potential in response to anxiety sensitivity images and self-reported anxiety sensitivity.

Anxiety sensitivity (AS), or the fear of anxious arousal, is a transdiagnostic risk factor predictive of a wide variety of affective disorders. Whereas AS is widely studied via self-report, the neurophysiological correlates of AS are poorly understood. One specific issue this may help resolve is well-established gender differences in mean levels of AS. The current study evaluated late positive potential (LPP) for images designed to target AS during an emotional picture viewing paradigm. Structural equation modeling was used to examine convergent and discriminant validity for self-report AS and the LPP for AS images, considering gender as a potential moderator. Analyses were conducted in an at-risk sample of 251 community adults (M age = 35.47, SD = 15.95; 56.2% female; 53.6% meeting for a primary Axis I anxiety or related disorder). Findings indicated that the AS image LPP was significantly, uniquely associated with self-report AS, controlling for the LPP for unpleasant images, in females only. Mean levels of AS self-report as well as the AS image LPP were higher in females than in males. These findings provide initial support for the AS image LPP as a useful neurophysiological correlate of AS self-report in females. These findings also provide support for a biological cause for gender differences in AS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Traditional School Bullying and Cyberbullying Perpetration: Examining the Psychosocial Characteristics of Hong Kong Male and Female Adolescents

Traditional school bullying and cyberbullying are growing concerns worldwide. Research has been devoted to understanding the etiology of bullying behaviors. Using a large sample of secondary school adolescents in Hong Kong ( N = 1,893), this study explores gender differences in mean levels of traditional school bullying (i.e., physical and verbal forms of bullying, and extortion and exclusion) and cyberbullying (i.e., overt and relational aggression) behaviors, and psychosocial characteristics (i.e., self-efficacy, empathy, prosocial behavior, family bonding, perception of a harmonious school, sense of belonging in school, and positive school experiences and involvement). The differential role of psychosocial characteristics in types of bullying perpetration is also examined. Findings indicate that the perpetration of traditional school bullying and cyberbullying behaviors are positively correlated, and male adolescents reported higher levels of bullying perpetration than female adolescents. Multivariate findings reveal that, to some extent, male and female adolescents shared a similar set of psychosocial risk factors of bullying perpetration, especially in the perpetration of traditional school bullying. The findings of this study may have important implications for practice in regard to minimizing, if not entirely preventing, through the joint efforts of the family, school, and social service systems, the propensity of adolescents to engage in the perpetration of bullying behaviors.

The effects of age, gender, and gender role ideology on adolescents’ social perspective-taking ability and tendency in friendships

Social perspective taking (SPT; i.e., the social-cognitive process of inferring another person’s thoughts and feelings) is commonly thought to be essential for successful social relationships, yet the bulk of past work on the development of SPT does not consider youths’ tendency to engage in SPT in the context of their close relationships. The current study of adolescents (ages 12–17, N = 158) helps move the field forward by distinguishing between adolescents’ SPT ability (i.e., whether they are developmentally capable of SPT) and their tendency to apply this ability in their actual social relationships, namely, friendships, and considering the roles of gender and age. Results indicate that SPT ability and SPT tendency are distinct, suggesting that youths do not always put to use the SPT skills that they possess. Girls scored higher than boys on both SPT ability and SPT tendency. Boys and girls had significant gains in SPT ability across adolescence. Surprisingly, however, boys’ SPT tendency decreased from early to later adolescence, indicating that older boys tend to engage in less SPT in their friendships despite increasing ability to do so. This is worrisome given the importance of SPT in promoting high-quality relationships. Importantly, gender role ideology predicted this tendency in boys, such that boys with more stereotypical gender beliefs tended to engage in less SPT with their friends. Thus, the current findings point to the importance of going beyond mean-level gender differences to consider gendered beliefs and suggest that interventions aimed at promoting egalitarian views may help foster SPT and successful friendships among boys.

Girls' and boys' problem talk: Implications for emotional closeness in friendships.

This research highlights the critical role of gender in the context of problem talk and social support in adolescents' friendships. Early- and middle-adolescents' (N = 314 friend dyads; Ms = 13.01 and 16.03 years) conversations about problems were studied using observation and a short-term longitudinal design. Mean-level gender differences emerged in that girls participated in problem talk more than boys and responded in a more positive and engaged manner to friends' statements about problems (e.g., by saying something supportive, asking a question) than did boys. Interestingly, boys used humor during problem talk more than girls. Despite mean-level differences, there were not gender differences in the functional significance of participating in problem talk and positive engaged responses in that these behaviors predicted increased friendship closeness for both boys and girls. In contrast, humor during problem talk predicted increased closeness only for boys, highlighting an understudied pathway to closeness in boys' friendships.

Friendship Expectations and Children's Friendship-Related Behavior and Adjustment

Although relationship expectations are thought to influence all social interactions, little is known about the function of children’s friendship expectations. This study examined the associations among children’s friendship expectations and their behavior within their friendships, their friendship adjustment, and their socioemotional functioning. Third-grade through fifth-grade children ( N = 499; 260 girls and 239 boys; M age = 9.88 years) completed measures of their friendship expectations, friendship effort, friendship quantity, friendship satisfaction, loneliness, and fear of negative evaluation as an index of their social anxiety. Using structural equation modeling, higher friendship expectations were found to be associated with more positive friendship adjustment and better socio-emotional functioning. Friendship effort mediated these associations. Despite mean-level gender differences in friendship expectations, friendship expectations functioned in largely similar ways for girls and boys. These findings suggest that it is adaptive for children to have high relationship standards for their friends. Implications for the development of friendship interventions are discussed.

Self-Efficacy in Persian Adolescents: Psychometric Properties of a Persian Version of the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children (SEQ-C)

This study was designed to evaluate the psychometric properties of a Persian version of the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children (SEQ-C) among Iranian adolescents. The scale was translated into Persian and administered to 946 high school students (49.8% girls, ages 14 through 19). Participants also completed the Child Depression Inventory, Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, and Spielberger’s State–Trait Anxiety Inventory. Finally, participants’ grade point averages were collected. Confirmatory factor analysis upheld the original 3-factor structure: social, academic, and emotional self-efficacy. Findings supported the Persian version of the SEQ-C’s internal consistency and test–retest reliability. The SEQ-C was related to other constructs in empirically and theoretically expected ways. With respect to gender, there was some noninvariance in factor structure and mean-level gender differences. Other results indicated that girls reported higher social and academic self-efficacy, but lower emotional self-efficacy, relative to boys. The Persian version of the SEQ-C was found to be a valid and reliable measure of self-efficacy among Persian adolescents.

Science Anxiety, Science Attitudes, and Constructivism: A Binational Study

Students’ attitudes and anxieties about science were measured by responses to two self-report questionnaires. The cohorts were Danish and American students at the upper secondary- and university-levels. Relationships between and among science attitudes, science anxiety, gender, and nationality were examined. Particular attention was paid to constructivist attitudes about science. These fell into at least three broad conceptual categories: Negativity of Science Toward the Individual, Subjective Construction of Knowledge, and Inherent Bias Against Women. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses revealed that these dimensions of constructivist attitudes were equally applicable and had the same meaning in both cultures. Gender differences in mean levels of constructivist attitudes were found; these varied across the two cultures. Constructivist beliefs were associated with science anxiety, but in different ways for females and males, and for Danes and Americans. In agreement with earlier studies, females in both the US and Danish cohorts were significantly more science anxious than males, and the gender differences for the Americans were larger than those for the Danes. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for reducing science anxiety by changing constructivist beliefs.

An Exploration of Social Cognitive Mechanisms, Gender, and Vocational Identity Among Eighth Graders

The authors conducted a multiple group path analysis examining gender differences in relations among career decision-making self-efficacy (CDMSE), career decision-making outcome expectations (CDMOE), and career decision-making intentions-goals (CDMIG), as well as linkages between these three sociocognitive variables and vocational identity status in a sample of 820 eighth graders. Overall, gender differences in mean levels of the sociocognitive variables were found, with girls scoring significantly higher on each variable. Results revealed model parameters varied across the groups, with stronger paths for boys than girls. Outcome expectations partially mediated the relation between CDMSE and CDMIG. Overall, CDMSE and CDMOE accounted for 30% and 45% of the variance in CDMIG for girls and boys, respectively. Moreover, linear combinations of sociocognitive variables explained differences among identity status groups. Participants with high CDMSE and CDMOE scores were more likely to have made a tentative career choice, whereas those with lower scores had not yet committed. Suggestions are provided for counseling younger adolescents as they begin to develop vocational identities.

Relational and Overt Aggression in Childhood and Adolescence: Clarifying Mean-level Gender Differences and Associations with Peer Acceptance

Research on relational aggression has drawn attention to how girls may be likely to aggress, but the role of gender is not fully understood. There are opposing views regarding whether relational aggression is most common among girls. Current findings demonstrate that when gender differences in relational aggression are assessed with peer nominations, gender differences favoring girls are more likely: a) in adolescence than childhood and b) when statistical overlap with overt aggression is controlled. Results also indicated that associations of relational aggression with peer acceptance depend on the aggressor's gender, the peer rater's gender, and whether overlap with overt aggression is controlled. Associations of relational aggression with lower acceptance became non-significant when overt aggression was controlled, suggesting that relational aggression displayed in isolation may not damage acceptance. In fact, in mid-adolescence, girls' relational aggression predicted greater liking by boys. Reducing relational aggression among adolescent girls may be especially challenging if the behavior is linked with acceptance by boys.

Relational Aggression in Mothers and Children: Links with Psychological Control and Child Adjustment

This study assesses associations between mothers’ use of relational aggression with their peers and psychological control with their children, and child adjustment in a sample of fifty U.S. mothers of elementary and middle school children. Mothers completed surveys assessing their relational aggression and psychological control. Teachers completed surveys assessing children’s externalizing behavior, internalizing symptoms, and relational aggression. Results suggest that mothers who are relationally aggressive with their peers are more likely to be psychologically controlling with their children. Results also showed that relational aggression predicted adjustment problems in youth. Relational aggression was associated with externalizing problems among boys and girls, and with internalizing problems among boys. Few gender differences in mean levels of maternal or child behaviors emerged.

Gender Differences in Vocational Interests and Their Stability Across Different Assessment Methods

In studies on gender differences with respect to Holland’s (1997) vocational interests, men often score higher on Realistic (and sometimes also on Investigative and Enterprising) interests, and women score higher on Social and Artistic interests. In research and practice, vocational interests are almost exclusively assessed by means of questionnaires. The aim of this study was to examine whether these results are also stable across assessment methods. Thus, a questionnaire and a nonverbal interest inventory were administered to a sample of N = 448 participants. Results were in the expected direction for both inventories, men scoring higher on Realistic interests and women scoring higher on Artistic and Social interests. However, the structure of interests varied between men and women: The structural assumptions of Holland’s theory fit the data for men better than the data for women. Thus, mean-level gender differences should be interpreted conservatively.

The role of internalizing and externalizing liability factors in accounting for gender differences in the prevalence of common psychopathological syndromes

We hypothesized that gender differences in average levels on the internalizing and externalizing factors that account for co-morbidity among common psychopathological syndromes in both men and women account for gender differences in the prevalence of specific syndromes. The latent structure of 11 syndromes was examined in a middle-aged (mean age=52.66 years, s.d.=5.82) sample of 2992 (37% men) members of the community-based Minnesota Twin Registry (MTR) assessed using 10 scales of the Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire (PDSQ) and an adult antisocial behavior scale. Confirmatory factorial invariance models were applied to a best-fitting, internalizing-externalizing model. A 'strong gender invariance model' fit best, indicating that gender differences in the means of individual syndromes were well accounted for by gender differences in mean levels of internalizing and externalizing. Women exhibited higher mean levels of internalizing (d=0.23) and lower mean levels of externalizing (d=-0.52) than men. These findings suggest that risk factors for common mental disorders exhibiting gender differences may influence prevalence at the latent factor level. Future research may benefit from focusing on both the latent factor and individual syndrome levels in explaining gender differences in psychopathology.

Gender differences and developmental change in externalizing disorders from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study.

Using data from over 1,000 male and female twins participating in the Minnesota Twin Family Study, the authors examined developmental change, gender differences, and genetic and environmental contributions to the symptom levels of four externalizing disorders (adult antisocial behavior, alcohol dependence, nicotine dependence, and drug dependence) from ages 17 to 24. Both men and women increased in symptoms for each externalizing disorder, with men increasing at a greater rate than women, such that a modest gender gap at age 17 widened to a large one at age 24. Additionally, a mean-level gender difference on a latent Externalizing factor could account for the mean-level gender differences for the individual disorders. Biometric analyses revealed increasing genetic variation and heritability for men but a trend toward decreasing genetic variation and increasing environmental effects for women. Results illustrate the importance of gender and developmental context for symptom expression and the utility of structural models to integrate general trends and disorder-specific characteristics.

Cognitive sex differences and mathematics and science achievement.

Spelke (December 2005, p. 950) considered “three claims that cognitive sex differences account for the differential representation of men and women in high-level careers in mathematics and science.” The focus of this comment is on the claim regarding gender differences in mean levels of cognitive abilities. Spelke claimed (p. 954) that “most investigators of sex differences have concluded that males and females have equal cognitive ability, with somewhat different profiles.” There are two major components to this comment. The first is mainly theoretical, and the second is both theoretical and empirical. The first component has to do with the basis for asserting that males and females have “equal cognitive ability.” The problem with this assertion is that since the early 1900s, modern intelligence researchers and theorists have documented extensively mean sex differences on many, if not most, cognitive ability measures. For some abilities, the differences between the sex groups is small (e.g., as in the case of abstract reasoning—see Lynn & Irwing, 2005), but for other abilities the differences are quite large (e.g., mechanical reasoning; see Halpern, 2000). As a result, whether males or females have higher mean general intelligence depends on the operationalization of the content of the tests selected to assess cognitive ability. Early test developers realized this problem but dealt with it in two strikingly different fashions. Yerkes, Bridges, and Hardwick (1915) concluded that these differences required separate norms for males and females:

Parents' Socializing Behavior and Children's Participation in Math, Science, and Computer Out-of-School Activities

This study examined associations between multiple parental behaviors and children's participation in out-of-school math, science, and computer activities for children in 2nd (n = 125), 3rd (n = 123), and 5th grade (n = 200). Mothers and fathers reported how often they encouraged their children's activities, participated in activities with their child, provided activity-related materials, and participated in activities themselves, as well as how often their children participated in activities. The youth described how often they participated in math, science, and computer activities. Results indicate that parents' behavior is a strong, positive predictor of children's participation. Although there were significant mean level gender differences, relations between parents' behavior and children's participation were similar for boys and girls.