Gender Congruency Research Articles

When do women receive managerial support? The effects of gender congruence and the manager-employee relationship

ABSTRACT This article examines the impact of manager-employee gender similarity on supportive leadership behaviours by public managers. Following prior research, we hypothesize that women with female managers are likely to report more leadership support than women with male managers and that this relationship will be moderated by the quality of the manager-employee relationship. Analysing multi-source survey data collected from a state agency, we find support for the gender-similarity effect. We also find a positive relationship between manager-employee relationship quality and supportive leadership behaviour. However, we do not find any support for the hypothesized moderation effect of the manager-employee relationship quality.

The scope of grammatical gender in Spanish: Transference to the conceptual level

The aim of the present study was to explore under what circumstances we could observe a transference from grammatical gender to the conceptual representation of sex in Spanish, a two-gender language. The participants performed a lexical decision task and a gender decision task in the auditory modality, including words referencing inanimate entities associated with males or females. The sex stereotype could be congruent (falda [skirt], feminine) or incongruent (corbata [tie], feminine) with the grammatical gender. If the transfer from grammatical gender to conceptual information related to sex is settled, we should observed faster access for the congruent words compared with the incongruent ones both in the gender decision task and in the lexical decision task. The results showed a facilitation while processing congruent vs. incongruent words where attention to gender was mandatory during the adapted gender decision task. However, there was a lack of transference during the lexical decision task that might have been caused by the absence of direct conceptual activation by the time the decision was made. Additionally, we found that grammatical gender and sex-related information are closely connected, such as the indexical information about the sex of the speaker primes the activation of information related to sex at the conceptual (sex stereotype) and also at the lexical level (grammatical gender). Altogether, the results indicate that gender congruency effect is magnified by direct gender activation.

Gender Differences in Authorship of Family Medicine Publications, 2002-2017.

Representation of women in medicine is increasing, including in academic family medicine. Despite this, women continue to hold a minority of senior faculty and leadership roles. This study examines the trends of women first and senior authorship between 2002 and 2017 in five family medicine journals: Family Medicine, Journal of Family Practice, Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Annals of Family Medicine, and American Family Physician. The study also examines gender congruence between first and senior authors and women's membership on editorial boards. We collected and analyzed data on a total of 1,671 original articles published in the five family medicine journals in 2002, 2007, 2012, and 2017. We also examined the gender composition of the journals' editorial boards. Overall, women first authorship increased significantly from 32.6% in 2002 to 47.7% in 2017. There was no significant difference in women senior authorship or editorial board representation from 2002 to 2017. Both men and women senior authors partnered with women first authors significantly more over the 15 years. While there was a statistically significant increase in women first authors between 2002 and 2017, there is still a gap between women's authorship and editorial board representation and their representation within academic family medicine. These gaps could help to explain the continued lack of women represented within senior faculty positions.

The Role of Unimodal Feedback Pathways in Gender Perception During Activation of Voice and Face Areas.

Cross-modal effects provide a model framework for investigating hierarchical inter-areal processing, particularly, under conditions where unimodal cortical areas receive contextual feedback from other modalities. Here, using complementary behavioral and brain imaging techniques, we investigated the functional networks participating in face and voice processing during gender perception, a high-level feature of voice and face perception. Within the framework of a signal detection decision model, Maximum likelihood conjoint measurement (MLCM) was used to estimate the contributions of the face and voice to gender comparisons between pairs of audio-visual stimuli in which the face and voice were independently modulated. Top–down contributions were varied by instructing participants to make judgments based on the gender of either the face, the voice or both modalities (N = 12 for each task). Estimated face and voice contributions to the judgments of the stimulus pairs were not independent; both contributed to all tasks, but their respective weights varied over a 40-fold range due to top–down influences. Models that best described the modal contributions required the inclusion of two different top–down interactions: (i) an interaction that depended on gender congruence across modalities (i.e., difference between face and voice modalities for each stimulus); (ii) an interaction that depended on the within modalities’ gender magnitude. The significance of these interactions was task dependent. Specifically, gender congruence interaction was significant for the face and voice tasks while the gender magnitude interaction was significant for the face and stimulus tasks. Subsequently, we used the same stimuli and related tasks in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm (N = 12) to explore the neural correlates of these perceptual processes, analyzed with Dynamic Causal Modeling (DCM) and Bayesian Model Selection. Results revealed changes in effective connectivity between the unimodal Fusiform Face Area (FFA) and Temporal Voice Area (TVA) in a fashion that paralleled the face and voice behavioral interactions observed in the psychophysical data. These findings explore the role in perception of multiple unimodal parallel feedback pathways.

Smart Speaker Recommendations: Impact of Gender Congruence and Amount of Information on Users' Engagement and Choice.

The relevance of smart speakers is steadily increasing, allowing users perform several daily tasks. From a commercial perspective, smart speakers also provide recommendations of products and services that may influence the consumer decision-making process. However, previous studies have mainly focused on the adoption of smart speakers, but there is a lack of proper guidelines that help design the way these devices should offer their consumption recommendations. Based on a stimulus-organism-response approach, we analyze how two features of smart speakers' recommendations (the gender congruence between the customer and the speaker, and the length of the message) influence on the effectiveness of such recommendations (i.e., visiting intentions) through its impact on user engagement and attitude. Data was collected from a sample of undergrad students in Spain using an experiment design that focused on a restaurant recommendation, and analyzed using partial least squares. On the one hand, our results suggests that gender congruence generates user engagement with the smart speaker. On the other hand, message length is positively related to attitudes towards the restaurant, at a declining rate. In addition, while better attitudes lead to higher visiting intentions, the influence of engagement on visiting intentions is partially mediated via attitudes. Thus, our findings contribute to understand the antecedents of users' engagement with smart speakers, as well as its impact on the customers' willingness to follow smart speakers' recommendations, constituting a base to analyze the impact of artificial intelligence solutions aimed to smooth the transitions of a customer through the stages of purchase process.

Gender, situational visibility, and discretionary decision-making of regulatory street-level bureaucrats under pandemic emergency: an experimental study in China

ABSTRACT How is the discretion of police officers influenced by clients’ gender and situational visibility under emergency regulations? To answer this question, this study uses the scenario-based-experimental-survey data collected from 878 police officers from three cities in China under the COVID-19 pandemic. The results show that the effect of gender congruence on the leniency of officers is only significantly positive when police and clients are both female. However, situational visibility will weaken the gender effect, reducing the officers’ leniency towards females. Moreover, visibility makes police even harsher towards male violators. The findings provide some practical implications.

The Breast Response to Estrogenic Stimulation in Transwomen Classification: Evaluation of Breast Response to Estrogenic Stimulation in Transwomen.

Hormone therapy with exogenous estrogen and/or spironolactone is commonly used in transfemales to induce breast development. However, inherent differences in adult male and female anatomy create persistent deformities and inadequate gender congruency despite glandular breast development. This includes nipple characteristics, position of inframammary fold, and the distribution of breast tissue. Accordingly, the Tanner stages do not accurately reflect these persistent deformities because they relate to breast development in transwomen. Herein, we describe a classification system for breast development in transwomen treated with hormone therapy. Ninety-nine transfemale patients who underwent breast augmentation from 2014 to 2018 were retrospectively reviewed and categorized using a novel scheme, the Breast Response to Estrogenic Stimulation in Transwomen (BREST) scale. Preoperative demographics, anatomic measurements, surgical technique, and postoperative results were also compared among BREST types. Most patients were rated as BREST type II (25%) or type IV (37%). The BREST scale exhibited moderate interrater reliability (κ = 0.58) between 3 plastic surgeons. Objective breast measurements such as sternal notch-to-nipple distance and nipple-to-inframammary fold distance correlated with the BREST scale. Multivariate logistical regression identified the nipple-to-inframammary fold distance and different between the bust and chest circumference as the strongest predictors of BREST type (odds ratio, 2.57 and 1.96, respectively). Body mass index was not a predictor of BREST type after controlling for confound variables on multivariate analysis. The BREST scale uniquely captures the differences in breast phenotypes in transgender women according to hormone therapy response. Although some subjectivity exists with moderate interrater reliability, the BREST scale correlates with objective breast measurements. The BREST scale provides a transwoman-specific metric allowing for a common language in assessment of transgender breast development and optimal communication among providers, different specialties, and insurance companies.

The Moderating Effect of Internalized Transphobia on the Association Between Gender Congruence and Sexual Satisfaction for Transgender Men

Abstract Despite the population of transgender individuals in the United States doubling from 2011 to 2016, this population is one of the most understudied in counseling and related disciplines. Of the available research, the associations between gender congruence, defined as an individual’s body matching their gender identity, and well-being have been examined, particularly demonstrating positive associations between gender congruence and overall life satisfaction. However, a dearth of research remains on the possible associations between gender congruence and indices of relationship well-being—particularly sexual satisfaction—and possible moderating effects of the internal negative feelings regarding one’s identity (internalized transphobia). To address these gaps in the literature, this study gathered self-report data from 165 binary transgender men. While there was not an effect of gender congruence on sexual satisfaction, internalized transphobia was found to moderate this association; individuals who reported high internalized transphobia and high gender congruence reported the highest sexual satisfaction. Results of this study highlight the existing literature on the negative associations between internalized transphobia and well-being for transgender individuals. Implications for counselors are discussed, including advocacy efforts and implementation of techniques to facilitate growth and resilience to help transgender clients navigate the negative effects of internalized transphobia.

A French Translation of the Transgender Congruence Scale: Validation and Associations with Distress, Well-Being, and Perceived Transition Status.

Purpose: Disparities in psychosocial functioning between transgender and cisgender populations highlight the importance of validating measures assessing mechanisms of resilience for transgender and nonbinary people. Gender congruence is an important mechanism of resilience, as it focuses on the individual's own gender objectives. Moreover, research increasingly links gender congruence to psychosocial functioning and well-being. The goals of the current study were to validate a French-language version of the Transgender Congruence Scale and examine how this scale was associated with life satisfaction, psychological distress, and perceived transition status. Methods: Individuals (N=179) with a variety of transgender and nonbinary gender identities living in Quebec, Canada, were recruited online. They completed the Transgender Congruence Scale, as well as measures of transition status, psychological distress, and life satisfaction. Results: A two-factor model (assessing appearance congruence and identity congruence, respectively) was supported in the current sample. The French translation of the Transgender Congruence Scale showed good reliability and validity, similar to those found with the original English language version of the measure. Higher scores on both subscales, as well as the total scale, were associated with better psychosocial functioning and self-defined transition status. Discussion: Findings linked both appearance and identity congruence to psychosocial outcomes and supported the validity of this French version of the Transgender Congruence Scale. With potential clinical or research applications, the Transgender Congruence Scale is a brief and psychometrically sound measure of an important resilience construct for gender minority individuals that can now be used with Francophone populations.

A Remote Instructor Like Me: Student–Teacher Congruence in Online, High School Courses

Students belonging to marginalized groups experience positive impacts when taught by a teacher of the same race, ethnicity, and gender. The unique nature of standardized, asynchronous online course taking allows for greater separation of any possible educational benefits of student versus teacher-driven mechanisms contributing to these improved outcomes. Using a student-by-course fixed effect strategy on data from a large urban school district, I examined associations between whether students experienced racial/ethnic or gender congruence with their remote instructor and both engagement and learning outcomes. Students who identified as Black demonstrated higher rates of engagement, although no difference in achievement, within lessons taught by a same-race remote instructor. I find that representation is associated with engagement even when instructors follow closely scripted lessons, representation occurs in only small doses, and instruction occurs in an impersonal setting.

챗봇의 성별과 챗봇과 고객 간의 성별 일치 효과에 관한 연구: 은행서비스를 배경으로

챗봇의 성별과 챗봇과 고객 간의 성별 일치 효과에 관한 연구: 은행서비스를 배경으로

Rule formalization, gender, and gender congruence: examining prosocial rule breaking for internal and external stakeholders

Rules play a crucial role in the public sector to ensure the effective provision of public services and the equitable treatment of all citizens. What factors influence whether employees abide by or break rules? More specifically, how do characteristics of the rules and the rule giver influence rule compliance? To address these questions, we employ an experiment to examine the influence of rule formalization, gender, and gender congruence on rule following in two different contexts. We find formalization increases rule compliance as employees are more likely to follow written rules than unwritten, verbal rules. Although gender and gender congruence are not significant, we raise several issues for research and practice in this area and find individual characteristics that influence rule following are different for men and women. Public managers and organizations should put rules in writing to ensure effective and equitable outcomes and promote organizational values to guide employee discretion.

Early and late bilingual processing of Spanish gender, morphology and gender congruency

The present study investigates whether advanced proficiency-matched early and late bilinguals display gender agreement processing quantitatively and qualitatively similar to that of native speakers of Spanish. To address this issue, a timed grammaticality judgment task was used to analyze the effects on accuracy and reaction times of grammatical gender, morphology, and gender congruency of the article and adjective within a noun phrase. Overall results indicated no significant statistical differences between the native speakers and the two bilingual groups. Both early and late bilinguals displayed similar grammatical gender knowledge in their underlying grammars. A detailed examination of the congruency effect, however, revealed that the native speakers, not the bilinguals, displayed sensitivity to gender agreement violations. Moreover, the native and heritage speakers pattern together in accuracy and directionality of gender agreement processing: both were less accurate with incongruent articles than with incongruent adjectives, while the second language learners were equally accurate in both agreement domains. Despite having internalized gender in their implicit grammars, the late bilinguals did not show native-like patterns in real time processing. The present findings suggest that, for high proficiency speakers, there is a distinct advantage for early over late bilinguals in achieving native-like gender lexical access and retrieval. Therefore, age of acquisition, in conjunction with learning context, might be the best predictor of native-like gender agreement processing at advanced and near-native proficiency levels.

Body checking behaviors and eating disorder pathology among nonbinary individuals with androgynous appearance ideals.

Internalized sociocultural standards of attractiveness are a risk factor repeatedly linked to eating disorders; however, many nonbinary individuals do not conform to these standards. This study investigated the body checking behaviors and eating disorder pathology among nonbinary individuals with androgynous appearance ideals. Participants (n = 194) completed an online survey assessing body checking behaviors, body appreciation, gender congruence, and eating disorder pathology RESULTS: Body checking predicted eating disorder pathology, and body image significantly improved the model. Gender congruence did not additional variance in predicting eating pathology CONCLUSION: Though gender congruence was not a significant predictor of eating pathology, content analysis revealed unique body behaviors specific to nonbinary individuals' gender identity and gender expression. Clinical implications include expanding perceptions of eating disorder presentation when working with nonbinary individuals with androgynous appearance ideals. Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Flexing Gender Perception: Brain Potentials Reveal the Cognitive Permeability of Grammatical Information.

A growing body of recent research suggests that verbal categories, particularly labels, impact categorization and perception. These findings are commonly interpreted as demonstrating the involvement of language on cognition; however, whether these assumptions hold true for grammatical structures has yet to be investigated. In the present study, we investigated the extent to which linguistic information, namely, grammatical gender categories, structures cognition to subsequently influence categorical judgments and perception. In a nonverbal categorization task, French-English bilinguals and monolingual English speakers made gender-associated judgments about a set of image pairs while event-related potentials were recorded. The image sets were composed of an object paired with either a female or male face, wherein the object was manipulated for their conceptual gender relatedness and grammatical gender congruency to the sex of the following target face. The results showed that grammatical gender modulated the N1 and P2/VPP, as well as the N300 exclusively for the French-English bilinguals, indicating the inclusion of language in the mechanisms associated with attentional bias and categorization. In contrast, conceptual gender information impacted the monolingual English speakers in the later N300 time window given the absence of a comparable grammatical feature. Such effects of grammatical categories in the early perceptual stream have not been found before, and further provide grounds to suggest that language shapes perception.

The Perpetuation of Gender Inequality Through Costly Gender Congruent Choices

Classic theories of gender inequality focus on women’s experiences to understand processes in play (e.g. backlash, glass ceiling). We considered how men’s reluctance to act in ways that may be perceived as feminine could be an unexplored mechanism through which gender inequality is perpetuated. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated the existence of an asymmetry in how men and women approach gender incongruence in self-expressive contexts. Results indicated that though both men and women prefer gender congruency, there exists an asymmetry whereby men care more to avoid gender incongruence. Men's willingness to bear disproportionally greater costs to avoid incongruence was so much that they forwent higher quality choices (e.g. better fitting clothes), whereas women did not disregard quality. In Study 3, we extend the implications of this asymmetry to career decisions. We examined an asymmetry in the magnitude of costs (e.g. higher salary/stability) that men and women are willing to incur to remain gender consistent in the labor market, and again found that men are more reluctant to make gender incongruent choices than women. We further discuss how the function of this asymmetry in perpetuating gender segregation differs from, and can add to, literature on gender inequality.

Vocational interests, gender, and job performance: Two person–occupation cross‐level interactions

AbstractVocational interest theories imply a person–occupation cross‐level interaction effect (e.g., artistic interests predict job performance better in artistic occupations), which has rarely if ever been tested as such. Using a large military sample, we find person–occupation interest congruence effects are supported: (a) on core technical job performance for six of eight interest dimensions, and (b) on job performance ratings for structural/machines and rugged outdoors (i.e., Realistic) interests. Another cross‐level interaction involves the person–occupation gender congruence effect. Our data also confirm the job performance gap favors men when in male‐dominated occupations, but favors women when in gender‐balanced occupations. Due to strong overlap between vocational interests and gender, we conduct a critical test of whether person–occupation interest congruence might be due to person–occupation gender congruence. In only two of six cases (i.e., rugged outdoors and administrative interests), did the person–occupation interest congruence effect disappear after controlling for the person–occupation gender congruence effect; the gender congruence effect also remained significant after controlling for the interest congruence effect. Consequently, the two cross‐level interactions on job performance (for vocational interests and for gender) appear to represent distinct effects. In a second, service organization sample, the person–occupation interest congruence effect (for Realistic interests) on job performance ratings and the person–occupation gender congruence effect were both replicated.

How leader gender influences external audience response to organizational failures.

Across 3 studies, we examine how leader gender affects external audiences' reactions to organizational failures, and under what conditions such effects are likely to occur. We find that leader gender and failure type (ethical, competence) interact to affect individuals' perceptions of, and propensity to support, an organization after a failure. People respond more negatively to ethical failures when an organization has a female versus a male leader. In contrast, competence failures generally elicit a less negative response for female-led versus male-led organizations. These effects are mediated by trust in the organization. We also show that these relationships are moderated by factors that influence evaluators' communal perceptions of leaders (e.g., leader descriptions) or their expectations regarding organizational competence (e.g., gender congruence). Our findings contribute to the literatures on female leaders, organizational failures, and the influence of norms on evaluator judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Is subliminal face processing modulated by attentional task sets? Evidence from masked priming effects in a gender decision task

AbstractUnlike classical theories of automaticity, refined theories suggest that unconscious automatic processes depend on cognitive control settings. Cognitive control influences on unconscious word and object processing are well documented, but corresponding findings in the field of face processing are heterogeneous. The present study therefore investigated, whether subliminal face priming in a gender categorization task is susceptible to feature-specific attention. Participants performed a gender decision task by orthogonally varying gender congruency (prime-target: same vs. different gender) and emotion congruency (prime-target: same vs. different emotional facial expression) using a masked priming paradigm. Perceptual vs. emotional induction tasks, performed prior to prime presentation, served to activate corresponding attentional task sets. Subliminal gender priming (faster reactions to gender-congruent primes) differed as a function of induction task and emotional congruency. Following perceptual induction, gender priming was only obtained in the emotionally congruent condition, whereas following emotional induction gender priming was observed independently of emotional congruency. In line with the classical notion of automaticity, subliminal gender priming did not depend on a specific attentional focus. However, attention to shape facilitated subliminal processing of task-irrelevant emotional facial expressions. Most likely, mutual facilitation of emotionally congruent prime and target representations enhanced gender priming compared with emotionally incongruent pairings.

The gender congruency effect in Catalan–Spanish bilinguals: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence

AbstractThe present study examines whether processing a word in one language is affected by the grammatical gender of its translation equivalent in another language. To this end, a group of Catalan–Spanish bilinguals performed a translation–recognition task while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. Participants were presented with Catalan and Spanish pairs of words and had to decide if they were translation equivalents. Correct translations included words that were gender congruent (estiuMAS/veranoMAS–summer) or gender incongruent (tardorFEM/otoñoMAS–autumn). The behavioral results showed that participants were faster and more accurate in the gender-congruent condition than in the incongruent condition. The ERP data showed a reduced N400 for the congruent condition. The facilitative effect of gender congruency observed in this study constitutes evidence of the obligatory access to grammatical gender information during bare noun processing and suggests that the bilinguals’ gender systems interact, even in highly proficient early bilinguals.