Geiger-mode Avalanche Photodiodes Research Articles

A Study of Crosstalk in a <inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$256 \times 256$ </tex-math></inline-formula> Photon Counting Imager Based on Silicon Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiodes

We demonstrate a 256 × 256 passive photon counting imager based on hybridization of back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes to an all-digital CMOS counting chip. Photon detection efficiencies in the 10%-20% are observed at visible wavelengths. The detection efficiency is currently limited by optical crosstalk that leads to elevation of dark count rates as the bias voltage on the photodiodes is increased. Both the time dependence of dark count activity during a gate time and the spatial structure of dark images were successfully explained using crosstalk-based models.

Optimal pseudorandom pulse position modulation ladar waveforms.

An algorithm for generating optimal pseudorandom pulse position modulation (PRPPM) waveforms for ladar ranging is presented. Bistatic ladar systems using Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes require detection of several pulses in order to generate sufficient target statistics to satisfy some detection decision rule. For targets with large initial range uncertainty, it becomes convenient to transmit a pulse train with large ambiguity range. One solution is to employ a PRPPM waveform. An optimal PRPPM waveform will have minimal sidelobes: equivalent to 1 or 0 counts after the pulse correlation filter (compression). This can be accomplished by generating PRPPM pulse trains with optimal or minimal sidelobe autocorrelation.

Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPAD) in CMOS 0.35 µm technology

Some decades ago single photon detection used to be the terrain of photomultiplier tube (PMT), thanks to its characteristics of sensitivity and speed. However, PMT has several disadvantages such as low quantum efficiency, overall dimensions, and cost, making them unsuitable for compact design of integrated systems. So, the past decade has seen a dramatic increase in interest in new integrated single-photon detectors called Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPAD) or Geiger-mode APD. SPAD are working in avalanche mode above the breakdown level. When an incident photon is captured, a very fast avalanche is triggered, generating an easily detectable current pulse.This paper discusses SPAD detectors fabricated in a standard CMOS technology featuring both single-photon sensitivity, and excellent timing resolution, while guaranteeing a high integration. In this work, we investigate the design of SPAD detectors using the AMS 0.35µm CMOS Opto technology. Indeed, such standard CMOS technology allows producing large surface (few mm2) of single photon sensitive detectors. Moreover, SPAD in CMOS technologies could be associated to electronic readout such as active quenching, digital to analog converter, memories and any specific processing required to build efficient calorimeters11SiPM is often used to measure the number of photons, proportional to the particle energy, which interact with a scintillator. At the opposite, an imager gives both the number of hit pixels and there position. So, in particle physics, calorimetry corresponds to the energy measurement of particles even if any temperature measurement is done. (Silicon PhotoMultiplier – SiPM) or high resolution imagers (SPAD imager). The present work investigates SPAD geometry. MOS transistor has been used instead of resistor to adjust the quenching resistance and find optimum value. From this first set of results, a detailed study of the dark count rate (DCR) has been conducted. Our results show a dark count rate increase with the size of the photodiodes and the temperature (at T=22.5°C, the DCR of a 10µm-photodiode is 2020counts−1 while it is 270counts−1 at T=−40°C for a overvoltage of 800mV). A small pixel size is desirable, because the DCR per unit area decreases with the pixel size. We also found that the adjustment of overvoltage is very sensitive and depends on the temperature. The temperature will be adjusted for the subsequent experiments.

大气背景下盖革模式APD激光雷达探测性能计算

大气背景下盖革模式APD激光雷达探测性能计算

基于G-APD阵列的卫星激光测距系统探测性能分析

基于G-APD阵列的卫星激光测距系统探测性能分析

A method to stabilize the temperature dependent performance of G-APD arrays

This paper presents a compensation method to stabilize the temperature dependent performance of Geiger-mode Avalanche Photodiode (G-APD) arrays for Positron Emission Tomography (PET). The compensation method is used to identify the bias voltage range that provides stable performance even at different temperatures using the G-APD’s characteristics, and to control the photo-peak variation as a function of temperature using the preamplifier gain within the identified bias voltage range. A pair of G-APD detectors and temperature sensors were located in the temperature chamber and the preamplifiers which can control the gain of the detectors using the digital potentiometer were positioned outside the chamber. The performance of the G-APD detector, especially energy resolution and coincidence timing resolution, was characterized as a function of bias voltage at different temperatures from 20°C to 40°C at 5°C increments; the energy resolution, coincidence timing resolution, and photo-peak position of all channels of G-APD PET detectors before and after the preamplifier gain correction were then measured and compared. The results of this study demonstrated that the optimal bias voltage range providing the good energy and coincidence timing resolution, 12.1±1.2% and 1.30±0.09ns, respectively, could be identified at the temperature range and the photo-peak variation and the performance at different temperatures could be stabilized by adjusting the preamplifier gain within the identified bias voltage range. We concluded the proposed method to be reliable and useful for the development of the PET system using G-APD arrays.

Dark Count Statistics in Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiode Cameras for 3-D Imaging LADAR

We describe cameras incorporating focal plane arrays of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GmAPDs) that enable 3-D imaging in laser radar (LADAR) systems operating at wavelengths near 1.0 and 1.5 μm. GmAPDs based on the InGaAsP material system achieve single-photon sensitivity at every pixel of the array and are hybridized to custom CMOS ROICs providing 0.25 ns timing resolution. We present camera-level performance for photon detection efficiency and dark count rate, along with a survey of the evolution of performance for a substantial number of 32 × 32 cameras. We then describe a temporal statistical analysis of the array-level dark count behavior that distinguishes between Poissonian intrinsic dark count rate and non-Poissonian crosstalk counts. We also report the spatial analysis of crosstalk events to complement the statistical temporal analysis. Differences between cameras optimized for the two different wavelengths—1.0 and 1.5 μm—are noted, particularly with regard to crosstalk behavior.

Optical phased-array ladar.

We demonstrate a ladar with 0.5m class range resolution obtained by integrating a continuous-wave optical phased-array transmitter with a Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode receiver array. In contrast with conventional ladar systems, an array of continuous-wave sources is used to effectively pulse illuminate a target by electro-optically steering far-field fringes. From the reference frame of a point in the far field, a steered fringe appears as a pulse. Range information is thus obtained by measuring the arrival time of a pulse return from a target to a receiver pixel. This ladar system offers a number of benefits, including broad spectral coverage, high efficiency, small size, power scalability, and versatility.

FACT — STATUS AND FIRST RESULTS

FACT is the first imaging Cherenkov telescope based on a camera using solid state photosensors (Geigermode Avalanche Photodiodes G-APD aka SiPM). Since October 2011, it has been taking data regularly. Apart from commissioning and calibration measurements, it has already started regular operation, where the main goal is to do long-term monitoring of bright TeV blazars. In June 2012, a flare of Mrk 501 was observed. Thanks to the robustness of the G-APDs, observations can be carried out during strong moon light without aging of the sensors. This improves the duty cycle of the instrument and provides better statistics for long-term light curves. The telescope, situated on the Canary Island of La Palma, is operated, already now, remotely from central Europe. For the future, robotic operation is planned. We report on our experiences during the commissioning, and we present first results from the first 1.5 years of observations.

Performance of the latest MPPCs with reduced dark counts and improved photon detection efficiency

We have tested the performance of two types of the latest Multi-Pixel Photon Counters (MPPCs; measuring 3×3mm2 in size) developed by Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. The new S12572-050C is a successor to the S10362-33-050C (i.e., conventional 3×3-mm2 pixel MPPC of 50μm pitch), comprises 3600 Geiger mode avalanche photodiodes (APDs), and also features high gain (up to 1.25×106), a low dark count (up to 106cps), and improved photon detection efficiency (PDE) by up to 30%. The S12572-015C is a new type of fine-pitch (15μm) MPPC featuring a wide dynamic range and fast timing response. This paper first presents the detailed performance of these latest MPPCs as photon counting devices. It then describes our fabrication of a prototype detector consisting of a MPPC optically coupled with a Ce:GAGG scintillator. We obtained average FWHM energy resolutions of 7.3% (15μm) and 6.7% (new-50μm), as compared to 6.9% (old-50μm) for 662-keV gamma rays from the 137Cs source, as measured at 20°C. Moreover, the number of fired pixels for 662-keV gamma rays increased by 30% for the new-50μm (as compared to the old-50μm). We confirmed that the low energy threshold improved from 10keV to 4keV, when using the latest MPPC device (new-50μm). We also confirmed that the timing resolution of the new MPPC is 50ps or even better, as compared to 89ps of the old MPPC. The results thus confirm that these new types of MPPCs are promising for various applications as scintillation detectors.

Characterization of New Hexagonal Large Area MPPCs

Photomultipliers (PMTs) are the standard detector for construction of the current generation of imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs). Despite impressive improvements in Quantum Efficiency (QE) and reliability in the last years, these devices suffer from the limitation of being unable to operate in the partially illuminated sky (during full or partial moon periods) as the excess light leads to a significant increase in the rate of ageing of the devices themselves and consequently limit the camera life. Large area Multi-Pixel Photon Counters (MPPCs) - also known as Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (G-APDs) or Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) - are a viable alternative and are commercially available from different producers in various types and dimensions. The maturity of this technology for application to Cherenkov Astronomy has already been demonstrated by the FACT telescope. The Small Size Telescopes (SSTs) of Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) observatory foresee the usage of MPPCs. One of the designs for a 4 m-diameter dish Davies-Cotton telescope engages custom designed large-area hexagonal MPPCs. This is the first time that an hexagonal device with area of $95~\hbox{mm}^{2}$ divided in 4 channels is made available. These photosensors, coupled with open non imaging light concentrators with a 24 degrees cut-off angle, offer a performing alternative to standard PMTs. In this paper we show the results of their characterization together with the comparison with other commercially available devices such as the Hamamatsu S10985-050C (2x2 array of $3~\hbox{mm} \times 3~\hbox{mm}$ MPPCs) and the SensL $\mu$ SB30035-X13-E15.

High-Performance InP-Based Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiodes and Integration Technologies

In recent years there has been a growing effort to develop alternative solid state detectors to replace photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) which retain a dominant role in low light-level detection. In the short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral band, InP based single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), also referred to as Geiger-mode APDs, provide a practical solution for single photon detection due to their high performance, reliability, compactness and low cost. Significant effort has been made during the last few years to improve the performance of InP based SPADs [1]. To address various applications, different integration technologies have been developed as well to fabricate various discrete and array format Geiger-mode APDs.In Figure 1, we illustrate the dependence of DCR on photon detection efficiency (PDE) for a fiber-coupled detector operated with 1.0 ns gates at 100 MHz gate repetition rate for optical pulses with a mean photon number of 0.1 at 1.5 μm photons and an operating temperature of -50°C. At 20% detection efficiency, DCR is less than 0.4 kHz, and at this operating point, the device exhibits an afterpulsing probability of <2% for a 1-ns gate with a hold-off time of 10 ns. Advances in integrated circuitry for operating the SPADs also allows PDE well beyond 30%.Discrete InP based SPADs work as a binary switch and do not have the capability of photon number resolution. For certain applications, it is important to resolve the number of incident photons. To address this need, we have developed a novel integration technology to fabricate negative feedback avalanche diode (NFAD) solid state photomultipliers (SSPMs) by monolithically integrating a SPAD with a thin film quenching resistor and connecting multiple elements in parallel which share common cathode and anode connections (i.e., matrix devices) [2]. When a low-light level signal is present and the probability of multiple photons impinging on the same active region is low, the pulse height from an NFAD matrix will be proportional to the number of incident photons. Figure 2 shows the avalanche distributions from a 4x4 NFAD matrix device, and a micrograph of the device is shown in the inset. As can be seen from Figure 2, the 4´4 matrix device can provide quasi-analog output for multi-photon inputs. The operation of discrete NFAD devices and NFAD matrix devices is very simple since only a DC bias voltage is required. The devices developed through this integration technology provide a unique solution to applications where single photon sensitivity and photon number resolution capability in the SWIR region is critical.To address a large class of 3D imaging and LIDAR applications, over the last few years we have developed large format (32x32, 128x32) Geiger-mode APD-based sensors through hybrid integration technology. A schematic illustration of the 3D GmAPD focal plane array (FPA) architecture is given in Figure 3. The 3D GmAPD FPA consists of the hybridized chip stack with a CMOS readout integrated circuit (ROIC), Geiger-mode APD photodiode array (PDA), and microlens array (MLA) attached to a ceramic interposer for electrical signal routing and cooled by a thermoelectric cooler (TEC). Single photon detection is enabled by a photodiode array (PDA) with GmAPD detectors in each pixel. The ROIC provides pixel-level electrical interfacing, and the MLA ensures high fill factor. The histogram of PDE for a 1.06 µm 128x32 GmAPD array is shown in Figure 4. The PDE was taken at 50 kHz frame rate with 0.1 photon per pixel per illumination pulse for a total of 25,000 frames. The average PDE is 25.1% and the average dark count rate (DCR) is 3.0 kHz under this bias condition. The 128x32 array demonstrated >99.9% pixel yield, high PDE, low DCR and narrow distribution of DCR and PDE. These FPAs developed through hybrid integration technology serve as the sensor engine for 3D imaging LIDAR systems [3].

Signal-to-noise ratio of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode single-photon counting detectors

Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GM-APDs) use the avalanche mechanism of semiconductors to amplify signals in individual pixels. With proper thresholding, a pixel will be either (avalanching) or off. This discrete detection scheme eliminates read noise, which makes these devices capable of counting single photons. Using these detectors for imaging applications requires a well-developed and comprehensive expres- sion for the expected signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). This paper derives the expected SNR of a GM-APD detector in gated operation based on gate length, number of samples, signal flux, dark count rate, photon detection effi- ciency, and afterpulsing probability. To verify the theoretical results, carrier-level Monte Carlo simulation results are compared to the derived equations and found to be in good agreement. © 2014 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation

Novel Hamamatsu Multi-Pixel Photon Counter (MPPC) array studies for the GlueX experiment: New results

The novel Hamamatsu Multi-Pixel Photon Counter (MPPC) S12045(X) is an array of 16 individual 3×3mm2 MPPC devices each with 3600 Geiger-mode Avalanche Photodiode pixels of 50×50μm2. Each MPPC in the array operates at a reverse bias of approximately 70V. This paper summarizes our characterization of MPPC arrays used in the GlueX experiment in Hall D at Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab). We studied the main features of each of the 16 MPPC array channels for 2800 MPPC arrays at several different temperatures. Two measurement stations were built to extract gain, breakdown voltage, photon detection efficiency, optical crosstalk and dark rate for each of the 44800 MPPC array channels at each temperature setting. The hardware and the data analysis are described, and new analytical expressions for the mean number of photoelectrons and optical crosstalk are presented, as well as systematic trends of the performance parameters.

Pixelated Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photo-Diode Characterization Through Dark Current Measurement

PIXELATED geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes(PPDs), often called silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are emerging as an excellent replacement for traditional photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) in a variety of detectors, especially those for subatomic physics experiments, which requires extensive test and operation procedures in order to achieve uniform responses from all the devices. In this paper, we show for two PPD brands, Hamamatsu MPPC and SensL SPM, that the dark noise rate, breakdown voltage and rate of correlated avalanches can be inferred from the sole measure of dark current as a function of operating voltage, hence greatly simplifying the characterization procedure. We introduce a custom electronics system that allows measurement for many devices concurrently, hence allowing rapid testing and monitoring of many devices at low cost. Finally, we show that the dark current of Hamamastu Multi-Pixel Photon Counter (MPPC) is rather independent of temperature at constant operating voltage, hence the current measure cannot be used to probe temperature variations. On the other hand, the MPPC current can be used to monitor light source conditions in DC mode without requiring strong temperature stability, as long as the integrated source brightness is comparable to the dark noise rate.

Photon-counting chirped amplitude modulation lidar using a smart premixing method

We proposed a new premixing method for photon-counting chirped amplitude modulation lidar (PCCAML). Earlier studies used the counting results of the returned signal detected by a Geiger mode avalanche photodiode detector (Gm-APD) to mix with the reference signal, called the postmixing method. We use an alternative method known as the premixing method, in which the reference signal is used to directly modulate the sampling gate width of the Gm-APD, and the mixing of the returned signal and the reference signal is completed before the Gm-APD. This premixing method is more flexible and may perform better than the postmixing method in terms of signal-to-noise ratio by cutting down a separated mixer commonly used in the postmixing lidar system. Furthermore, this premixing method lowers the demand for the sampling frequency of the Gm-APD. It allows the use of a much wider modulation bandwidth to improve the range accuracy and resolution. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to use the premixing method in the PCCAML system, which will benefit future lidar applications.

Performance comparison of wet‐etched and dry‐etched Geiger‐mode avalanche photodiodes using a single diffusion process

AbstractIn this paper, we compare the performances of wet‐etched and dry‐etched Geiger‐mode avalanche photodiodes (GM‐APDs) using a single diffusion process at a wavelength of 1.55‐µm. The single‐diffused GM‐APD based on a wet recess‐etching has demonstrated the good performances of a dark count rate of 0.03 kHz/µm2 and a photon detection efficiency of 17.1% at 240 K. (© 2013 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &amp; Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Range accuracy of photon heterodyne detection with laser pulse based on Geiger-mode APD

In this paper, we propose a combined system of heterodyne detection with laser pulse and photon counting based on Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GM-APD) that is designed to achieve the range of remote non-cooperative target. Based on the heterodyne principle and assuming that the creation of primary electrons in GM-APD is Poisson-distributed, the range accuracy model is established. The factors that influence the range accuracy, namely pulse width, echo intensity, local oscillator (LO) intensity, noise, echo position, and beat frequency, are discussed. The results show that these six factors have significant influence on the range accuracy when the echo intensity is extremely weak. In case that the primary electrons of the echo signal are beyond 4, the pulse width and echo intensity are the main influence factors. It is also shown that the stronger echo intensity, narrower pulse width, low noise, large echo position, and small beat frequency produce higher range accuracy in a pulsed photon heterodyne detection system based on GM-APD.

The effect of temporal separation of two Geiger mode avalanche photodiodes and variation of time bin widths on detection probabilities in LADAR system using two Geiger mode avalanche photodiodes

In this paper, the effect of temporal separation of two Geiger mode avalanche photodiodes and the variation of time bin widths on detection probabilities in LADAR system using two Geiger mode avalanche photodiodes (GmAPDs) was investigated. The system is implemented by using two GmAPDs with a beam splitter and applying comparative process to their ends. Then, the timing circuitry receives the electrical signals only if each GmAPD generates the electrical signals simultaneously. Although this system decreases the energy of a laser-return pulse scattered from the target, it is highly effective in reducing the false alarm probability because of the randomly distributed noise on the time domain. The temporal separation of two GmAPDs and the variation of the time bin widths result in the variation of detection probabilities. The experiments were performed to verify the effect of temporal separation of two GmAPDs and the variation of time bin widths on the detection probability in the LADAR system. As a result, the optimal temporal difference and the optimal time bin width were. Using these optimal values, a clear 3D image could be obtained by the simple acquisition of the raw time-of-flight data with high SNR.

Assembly technology of 4-side buttable MPPC

The multi-pixel photon counter (MPPC) is a solid-state photon counting device consisting of a Geiger-mode APD and a quenching resistor. Through-silicon via technology (TSV) allows for the production of a discrete array version of the MPPC, creating a detector with the advantages of a larger active area and less dead space in its overall packaging when compared to other package types commonly used to produce MPPCs. Eliminating the need for a wire-bonding pad allows individual MPPCs to be tiled with minimum dead-space between individual detectors to form a four-sided buttable array. Selecting MPPCs that behave and perform very similarly to each other, especially when an operating voltage is applied, minimizes variation in performance between each channel and enhances channel uniformity. The output of discrete arrays of MPPCs can be easily readout with ASICs (application specific integrated circuits) due to their excellent channel uniformity characteristics, with minimum adjustment required by the ASIC.