Gaurishankar Conservation Area Research Articles

First photo evidence of stone marten Martes foina (Erxleben, 1777) in Rolwaling and Lapchi valleys of Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

Stone marten (Martes foina) is a fascinating, elusive and crepuscular small carnivore mammal belonging to the family Mustelidae. They are widely distributed throughout Europe and in western and central Asia. Little information is available on the distribution pattern and habitat requirement of the species in the Nepal Himalaya. Based on the camera trap study, we reported the first photo evidence of the presence of stone marten in the Lapchi and Rolwaling valleys of the Gaurishankar Conservation Area. This finding has opened new avenues for further ecological research and to investigate human-induced threats to the species in the region.

Human‐wildlife conflict at high altitude: A case from Gaurishankar conservation area, Nepal

AbstractHuman–wildlife conflict studies of high‐altitude areas are rare due to budget constraints and the challenging nature of research in these remote environments. This study investigates the prevalence and increasing trend of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in the mountainous Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) of Nepal, with a specific focus on leopard (Panthera pardus) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus laniger). The study analyzes a decade of HWC reports and identifies goats as the livestock most targeted by leopards. The Dolakha district of GCA received the highest number of reports, highlighting the need for mitigation measures in the area. In GCA, livestock attacks accounted for 85% of compensation, with the remaining 15% for human injuries. We estimate that the number of reported wildlife attacks grew on average by 33% per year, with an additional increase of 57 reports per year following the implementation of a new compensation policy during BS 2076 (2019 AD). While bear attacks showed no significant change post‐rule alteration, leopard attack reports surged from 1 to 60 annually, indicating improved compensation may have resulted in increased leopard‐attack reporting rates. The findings emphasize the economic impact of HWC on local communities and suggest strategies such as increasing prey populations, promoting community education and awareness, enhancing alternative livelihood options, developing community‐based insurance programs, and implementing secure enclosures (corrals) to minimize conflicts and foster harmonious coexistence. This research addresses a knowledge gap in HWC in high‐altitude conservation areas like the GCA, providing valuable insights for conservation stakeholders and contributing to biodiversity conservation and the well‐being of humans and wildlife.

First photo evidence of Siberian Weasel Mustela sibirica Pallas, 1773 (Mammalia: Carnivora: Mustelidae) in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

Five photographs of Siberian Weasel were captured by camera traps in two locations at an elevation of 2,840-3,200 m. in Gaurishankar Conservation Area. The species was identified based on its uniform yellowish-brown coat, the presence of a black mask that surrounded its eyes and the white chin, which are key characteristics that distinguishes it from other weasel species. This is the first confirmation of the presence of Siberian Weasel in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal. Based on present and previous confirmed records, a distribution map of the species has been updated for Nepal.

Habitat overlap and interspecific competition between snow leopards and leopards in the Central Himalayas of Nepal

Traditionally, leopards (Panthera pardus) and snow leopards (P. uncia) occupy distinct habitats. This study explored the coexistence of snow leopards and leopards within the Gaurishankar Conservation Area in Lapchi Valley, Nepal. Both leopard species are crucial for ecosystem stability as apex predators. Camera trapping data from 2018 to 2023 confirmed twenty species of wild mammals and two species of domesticated livestock in Lapchi Valley, where snow leopards have strong spatio-temporal overlap (Δ=0.74) with leopards. Snow leopards exhibited distinct temporal patterns before and after the leopards’ arrival in the study area. Generalized Linear Mixed Effect Models (GLMM) revealed seasonal and prey-type associations with leopard presence, highlighting the snow leopards' preference for cold season and wild prey. Leopards, however, did not show a significant seasonal preference. The findings highlight Lapchi Valley's ecological richness as well as the need for comprehensive conservation strategies. The record of spatial and temporal overlap between the leopards and snow leopards provides important insights into the behavioral dynamics of apex predators and the need for targeted biodiversity conservation in the face of changing ecosystems. The study emphasizes the valley's transboundary significance, calling for collaborative efforts between Nepal and China to help promote effective conservation management. Lapchi Valley's isolation, traditional and religious importance, and recent infrastructure developments further impact the conservation challenges.

Wildlife Victims in the Gaurishankar Conservation Area

Human-wildlife conflict is a major conservation challenge in Nepal, particularly in the Gaurishankar Conservation Area. This study examines the status of Human-Wildlife Conflict in Gaurishankar Conservation Area focusing on fieldwork in Lamabagar, ward no-1, Dolkha district, Nepal. It aims to identify the stress experienced by wildlife victims, analyzing their problems from social work and stress coping perspectives. The research utilizes qualitative and quantitative methods for data collection and analysis, addressing a notable gap in literature regarding social work perspectives on human-wildlife conflict. The study aims to estimate the stress levels resulting from human-wildlife conflict. This stress, when unmanaged, poses mental health challenges. Animals like monkeys, porcupines, gorals, deer, and Himalayan black bears impact community livelihoods by damaging crops and posing a threat to humans. In the research primary and secondary data has been used. Analyzing the data is supposed to lead to a conclusion.

Reproductive Performance of Piptanthus nepalensis along an Elevation Gradient in Central Nepal

Assessing altitudinal variation in the reproductive outputs of a plant species provides important insights into the reproductive adaptation of plants towards stressful environmental conditions. However, such studies are yet meager, particularly with reference to Nepalese plants. In this study, we assessed the variation in the reproductive performance of Piptanthus nepalensis along the elevation gradient in central Nepal. We considered ovule production, seed production per fruit, seed set proportion, ovule/seed abortion proportion, and individual seed mass as the various proxies of reproductive performance of P. nepalensis and estimated those traits at six sites from 3225 m to 3610 m asl within Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Dolakha, Nepal. We tested if the various reproductive performance traits of P. nepalensis were correlated with elevation. We also tested if an individual seed mass of P. nepalensis was correlated with an intrinsic factor, seed number per fruit. The result revealed that most of the studied reproductive performance traits were not related to the elevation. Moreover, individual seed mass also did not show a correlation with seed number per fruit. The almost independent relationship of important reproductive outputs of P. nepalensis with elevation and seed number per fruit thus suggest that this plant species could endure wide ranges of abiotic and intrinsic stresses for achieving optimal reproductive performance and survivorship.

Camera trapping reveals habitat overlap between snow leopards and common leopards in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal.

We provide camera trap records of the presence of two large predators: the snow leopard Panthera uncia and common leopard Panthera pardus from the same habitats in Lapchi Valley of Gaurishankar Conservation Area. Camera traps were laid for 2,304 (mean 88.62 Å} SD 103.34) trap nights in 26 locations (elevation range: 2,140 to 4,350 m, area: 141.63 km2). A total of 55, 219 pictures were recorded from November 2022 to May 2023. Out of 26 camera stations, two camera stations captured the images of both species at an altitude of 4,000 m and 4,260 m in Lapchi Valley. The Relative Abundance Indices of snow leopards and common leopards were 7.51 SD 6.35 and 9.84 SD 6.35 per 100 trap days/nights, and independent detection rates were 0.41 and 0.52 respectively. This is the first evidence of habitat overlap between two large vulnerable predators in Gaurishankar Conservation Area. The nature of the coexistence or competition between these predators needs further investigation.

A checklist of mammals of Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

Understanding the mammalian fauna is one of the first steps for protected areas management. Proper taxonomic identification is essential for initiating long-term conservation management and species action plans. Here, we present the checklist of mammals of Gaurishankar Conservation Area based on direct observation, field reports, key interviews, focal group discussion, and a literature review. Seventy-seven species of mammals belonging to eight orders and 26 families were known to occur in the region. Of these, only 32 species were of confirmed occurrence and are based on direct observation and camera trap records. The remaining 45 species listed in the checklist were based on interviews and literature. Small mammals of orders Chiroptera and Rodentia were reported less based on interviews and literature surveys, hence needs further studies to confirm their existence. The highest species belonged to the order Carnivora (25 species), followed by Chiroptera (21 species), Rodentia (12 species), Cetartiodactyla (7), Lagomorpha (5), Eulipotyphla (3), Primates (3) and Pholidota (1). A more robust taxonomic study particularly focusing on small mammals is warranted considering the ecological gradients and topography in the region.

Motivation and service quality relationship with visitor satisfaction and loyalty intentions in a mountainous protected area

ABSTRACT This research examined multidimensional relationships of service quality and motivation with satisfaction and loyalty intentions among visitors at Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) in Nepal. Data were collected via a questionnaire survey with international tourists, and analysis was conducted using partial least square structural equation modeling. Satisfaction was significantly and positively related to both intention to revisit and intention to recommend, thus suggesting the key role of satisfaction on tourists’ loyalty. While the relationships of perceived service environment quality with satisfaction and revisit intention were not significant; perceived service environment quality had a positive and significant association with the intention to recommend. Similarly, motivation to experience nature and perceived service delivery quality were positively and significantly related to both intention to recommend and intention to revisit directly or indirectly via satisfaction. Overall, results suggest that GCA management could improve visitor satisfaction and loyalty by further improving the quality of service environment and quality of service delivery, and by attracting tourists who are motivated to experience nature. Findings also suggest the importance of considering multidimensionality and complex interrelationships of factors related to visitors’ expectations and behaviors in planning destination marketing and service offering.

On the occurrence of the Himalayan Wolf Canis lupus, L. 1758 (Mammalia: Carnivora: Canidae) in the Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal; its existence confirmed through sign and visual evidence in Rolwaling Valley

The Himalayan Wolf Canis lupus L., a top predator of the Third Pole, is proposed to be of a distinct wolf lineage (C. himalayensis) relative to the Holarctic Grey Wolf as described by mtDNA analyses. A biodiversity survey organized by the Gaurishankar Conservation Area Project (GCAP) has captured images of wolves in three different regions, and the study team has observed wolf scats in five additional regions above the tree line in Rolwaling Valley. Further, interviews with local herders provided evidence of wolf depredation of livestock in the area. The Rolwaling Valley in the Gaurishankar Conservation Area was the study area which was divided into 12, 4 x 4 km (16 km2) grid cells, each supplied with one camera trap operated continuously from June to November 2019 (only 6 out of 12 cameras functioned for the duration of our study). Wolf detections were recorded by camera traps from Yalung Pass (4,956 m), Tsho-Rolpa glacial Lake (4,536 m) and the Dudhkunda ridgeline (5,091 m). The photo capture rate index (PCRI) for wolves was 0.71. Our study reports the first photographic evidence of the Himalayan Wolf in the Rolwaling Valley.

Habitat preference of Himalayan musk deer (Moschus leucogaster Hodgson, 1839) at Lapchi of Bigu Rural Municipality, Gaurishankar Conservation Area

The Himalayan musk deer (Moschus leucogaster) is an endangered species listed in the IUCN Red List and Appendix I of CITES. It is widely but discontinuously distributed in Nepal. A Pellet sign survey was carried in April 2019 in Lapchi valley of Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) in Nepal to assess the habitat preference of Himalayan musk deer. A total of 11 transects of 16348 m length and 10 m wide was surveyed. Seven Parameters: Elevation, Aspect, ground cover, distance from the water source, crown cover, rock exposure, and distance from settlement/cow sheds were recorded from the location where pellet (toilet) of musk deer were recorded to extrapolate the probable habitat map. We recorded a total of 157 musk deer pellet groups in the study area14.27 ± 2.91. The study concluded that the 38.4% (26.5 km2) area of Lapchi valley is the probable habitat of musk deer. The c2 – test suggested that the distribution of musk deer is significantly associated with elevation and aspect of the location. Musk deer mostly preferred habitat between 3600-4000 m elevations, with North-West aspect, ground cover less than 25%, and canopy cover between 25%-50%. Musk deer signs were recorded in areas with rock exposure ranging from as low as less than 25%. Distance from the water source and human settlement affect the distribution of musk deer. The indirect signs were higher near water sources and far from human settlement.

Motive-based segmentation of international tourists at Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) is a recently established natural-based protected area in Nepal, which has witnessed an increase in international visitors. To optimize visitor experience, it is essential to examine motivations to visit along with visitors’ characteristics and behavioral dispositions. The purpose of this study was to examine international tourists via a motive-based segmentation approach for GCA. In addition, the study also intended to identify visitor segments’ profile characteristics such as socio-demographic, travel behaviors, satisfaction, loyalty intention, and their willingness to pay for higher entrance fees. Data (N=121) were collected among international tourists visiting GCA either as a primary destination or as a transit point. Results identified three distinct segments of visitors — ‘local art and culture enthusiast’, ‘escapist’, and ‘nature adventurer.’ Each cluster was different with regards to their socio-demographics, travel behavior, satisfaction, willingness to revisit and recommend, and willingness to pay to support the environment and cultural resources, and local economy. The insights gained from motive-based segmentation can be beneficial to GCA to develop specific products and promotions and incorporate visitor monitoring & management programs.

First camera-trap record of the snow leopard Panthera uncia in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

AbstractThe snow leopard Panthera uncia is the flagship species of the high mountains of the Himalayas. There is potentially continuous habitat for the snow leopard along the northern border of Nepal, but there is a gap in information about the snow leopard in Gaurishankar Conservation Area. Previous spatial analysis has suggested that the Lamabagar area in this Conservation Area could serve as a transboundary corridor for snow leopards, and that the area may connect local populations, creating a metapopulation. However, there has been no visual confirmation of the species in Lamabagar. We set 11 infrared camera traps for 7 months in Lapchi Village of Gaurishankar Conservation Area, where blue sheep Pseudois nayaur, musk deer Moschus leucogaster and Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, all snow leopard prey species, had been observed. In November 2018 at 4,100 m, 5 km south-west of Lapchi Village, one camera recorded three images of a snow leopard, the first photographic evidence of the species in the Conservation Area. Sixteen other species of mammals were also recorded. Camera-trap records and sightings indicated a high abundance of Himalayan tahr, blue sheep and musk deer. Lapchi Village may be a potentially important corridor for snow leopard movement between the east and west of Nepal and northwards to Quomolongma National Park in China. However, plans for development in the region present increasing threats to this corridor. We recommend development of a transboundary conservation strategy for snow leopard conservation in this region, with participation of Nepal, China and international agencies.

People’s Knowledge of Illegal Chinese Pangolin Trade Routes in Central Nepal

Chinese pangolin populations are declining globally due to illegal wildlife trades in its range countries, especially China and Vietnam, where the largest markets for this species exist. Identifying the trade routes is crucial for developing conservation plans for the pangolin and understanding the attributes of the individuals involved in the illegal trade. We aimed to identify local trade routes and the socio-economic status of people involved in pangolin trades from the Gaurishankar Conservation Area [a Protected Area (PA)] and the Ramechhap district [a non-Protected Area (non-PA)] of Nepal. We found that pangolin traders were typically poor, illiterate, unemployed, male, and of working age (17–40 years old). Confiscation rates of pangolin parts were higher in non-PAs than Pas as the illegal trade routes seemed to differ between the PAs and non-PAs. From 2014 to 2018, the prices of pangolin scales in PAs and non-PAs increased by 50% and 67%, respectively. Our results highlight locals facilitating the trade of pangolins, therefore we recommend the need for other income generating sources such as ecotourism or providing incentives to promote local industries as well as to establish Community Based Anti-Poaching Units among range countries and trade route countries to control the trade of this globally threatened species.

Estimating occupancy of Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) in a protected and non-protected area of Nepal.

Chinese pangolin is the world's most heavily trafficked small mammal for luxury food and traditional medicine. Although their populations are declining worldwide, it is difficult to monitor their population status because of its rarity and nocturnal behavior. We used site occupancy (presence/absence) sampling of pangolin sign (i.e., active burrows) in a protected (Gaurishankar Conservation Area) and non‐protected area (Ramechhap District) of central Nepal with multiple environmental covariates to understand factors that may influence occupancy of Chinese pangolin. The average Chinese pangolin occupancy and detection probabilities were Ψ^ ± SE = 0.77 ± 0.08; p^ ± SE = 0.27 ± 0.05, respectively. The detection probabilities of Chinese pangolin were higher in PA ( p^ ± SE = 0.33 ± 0.03) than compared to non‐PA ( p^ ± SE = 0.25 ± 0.04). The most important covariates for Chinese pangolin detectability were red soil (97%), food source (97.6%), distance to road (97.9%), and protected area (97%) and with respect to occupancy was elevation (97.9%). We recommended use of remote cameras and potentially GPS collar surveys to further investigate habitat use and site occupancy at regular intervals to provide more reliable conservation assessments.

New record on Asiatic Golden Cat Catopuma temminckii Vigors & Horsfield, 1827 (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae): photographic evidence of its westernmost distribution in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

The Asiatic Golden Cat Catopuma temminckii is poorly known in Nepal and was previously recorded only twice in the eastern part of the country. We conducted a camera trap survey in the Lapchi Valley (32km2) of Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA), a protected area in north-central Nepal, from October 2018 to April 2019. Eleven cameras were deployed to record mammalian diversity in a 2×2 km2 grid across Lapchi block of GCA. During the study period, four photos and three videos (each of 10 seconds length) of Asiatic Golden Cats were recorded at an elevation of 2,540m at a single camera trap station. This is the first photographic record of Asiatic Golden Cat in this region of Nepal extending the distribution of the species further west in the Himalaya. A more detailed study on its distribution, population size and behaviour is warranted in the near future to implement appropriate conservation measures.

MtDNA confirms the presence of Moschus leucogaster (Ruminantia, Moschidae) in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

Musk deer (genus Moschus), an endangered mammal, is not only of great concern for its conservation, but it is also of great interest to understand its taxonomic and phylogenetic associations in Nepal. The aim of this study was to identify the taxonomic status of musk deer in Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) using mitochondrial genomic data of cytochrome b (370 bps) through phylogenetic analysis of all the species of musk deer. The results showed that the species found in GCA is confirmed as Himalayan musk deer Moschus leucogaster, further expanding its distributional range in Nepal.

Mycochemical and Nutritional Analysis of Selected Wild Mushrooms from Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

Wild mushrooms are the major supplement of culinary in rural parts of developing world including Nepal and are often praised for their medicinal and nutritional properties. Wild mushrooms in various parts of the world have been studied for their antioxidant, nutritional and biochemical properties. However, such information is lacking in case of Nepalese wild mushrooms. In this study antioxidant activity and nutritional composition of six wild mushrooms from Gaurishankar conservation area of eastern Nepal was carried out. Radical scavenging activity, total flavonoid, total phenolic, β carotene, lycopene, Vitamin C and protein content of the samples were analyzed following established protocols. Stereum ostrea and Geoglossum cookeanum showed higher scavenging activity among all tested mushroom samples. Total flavonoid content, β carotene and lycopene were the highest in Daldinia concentrica. Total protein content was the highest in Trichaptum abietinum. Low amount of Vitamin C, β carotene and lycopene was observed in all samples.

Carbon stock estimation of Shree Rabutar Forest of Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Dolakha, Nepal

Forests store significant amount of atmospheric carbon in the form of above and below ground biomass and the amount of carbon stored in forests differs along spatial continuum which provides important information regarding forest quality. This study was carried out to estimate the carbon stock of Shree Rabutar Forest of Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Dolakha, Nepal. In total, 20 circular sampling plots with an area 250 m2 were randomly laid in the study area. Ten tree species were observed in the sampling plots laid in the forest. The higher values of density, frequency, abundance and basal area were observed for Rhododendron arboreum, Alnus nepalensis, Pinus roxburghii and Pinus wallichiana. On the basis of Important Value Index, the dominant tree in the forest was Alnus nepalensis followed by Rhododendron arboreum and Pinus roxburghii. Shannon Index of general diversity of trees in the forest was 0.74 with equal value of Evenness Index, whereas the index of dominance was low (0.22) in the forest. Mean biomass of the forest was 464.01±66.71 tonha-1 contributed by above ground tree biomass (384.44 tonha-1), leaf litter, herbs and grasses biomass (2.69±0.196 tonha-1) and below ground tree biomass (76.88±11.13 tonha-1). Mean carbon stock was 262.77±30.79 tonha-1 including soil carbon stock 44.69±2.25 tonha-1. Individuals of trees with 20-30 cm DBH class were observed in maximum number, which shows that the forest has high potential to sequester carbon over time. Carbon stock estimation and forest management can be one of the potential strategies for climate change mitigation especially through carbon dioxide absorption by the forests.

Factors Associated with Conservation Participation by Local Communities in Gaurishankar Conservation Area Project, Nepal

Information about the factors associated with conservation participation by local communities is important to garner support and involvement within a natural protected area. This research examined how residents’ natural resource dependency and other social, economic, and access-related variables predict conservation participation. Data were collected based on a stratified random sampling of households from Gaurishankar Conservation Area Project (GCAP)—a newly designated mountainous protected area in Nepal. Analysis was conducted via an ordered logistic regression model. Higher levels of participation were observed among households that comprised of a larger family size, belonged to a higher caste/ethnicity, resided in higher elevations, and noted frequent visits and interactions with park management staff. However, natural resources dependency (i.e., income and fuelwood fodder) lacked a statistically significant relationship with conservation participation. Similarly, the economic dimension (i.e., land holdings and total livestock unit) was not a significant predictor of participation. Overall, key findings suggest that conservation participation at GCAP needs to be improved with multiple outreach activities, especially to resource-dependent households. More specifically, it is important to ensure equitable access so that locals can participate in programs that provide alternative resource use options, skills development, and trainings for income generation activities.