Gastrocnemius Muscle Thickness Research Articles

EFFECTS OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL THERAPY ON FUNCTION AND MUSCLE ULTRASOUND PARAMETERS IN CHILDREN WITH CEREBRAL PALSY

Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of neurodevelopmental therapy (NDT) for improving lower extremity functions, ankle dorsiflexion range of motion (ROM), popliteal angle, medial gastrocnemius (GCM) muscle thickness (MT), and functionality of lower extremity on children with hemiparetic Cerebral Palsy (CP).
 Methods: Eighteen children with hemiparetic CP aged between 6-15 years were included in the study. Structured NDT (s-NDT) was applied 40 minutes per session, three times a week over 12 weeks. Children were evaluated with Gross Motor Function Measurement-88 (GMFM-88) for motor function level; with goniometer for ankle dorsiflexion ROM and popliteal angle; with ultrasound for medial GCM MT, and with ultrasound Lower Extremity Function Test (LEFT) for the functionality of lower extremity. Children were evaluated before and after the intervention. 
 Results: After the treatment, statistically significant differences were obtained in mean values of GMFM-88, ankle dorsiflexion ROM, medial GCM MT, and LEFT (p0.05). 
 Conclusion: In conclusion, it was observed that s-NDT might be effective on motor function level, ankle dorsiflexion, medial GCM MT, and lower extremity functionality in children with hemiparetic CP. These improvements will make significant positive contributions to the mobility of children.

Fermented Oyster Extract Attenuated Dexamethasone-Induced Muscle Atrophy by Decreasing Oxidative Stress.

It is well known that oxidative stress induces muscle atrophy, which decreases with the activation of Nrf2/HO-1. Fermented oyster extracts (FO), rich in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and lactate, have shown antioxidative effects. We evaluated whether FO decreased oxidative stress by upregulating Nrf2/HO-1 and whether it decreased NF-κB, leading to decreased IL-6 and TNF-α. Decreased oxidative stress led to the downregulation of Cbl-b ubiquitin ligase, which increased IGF-1 and decreased FoxO3, atrogin1, and Murf1, and eventually decreased muscle atrophy in dexamethasone (Dexa)-induced muscle atrophy animal model. For four weeks, mice were orally administered with FO, GABA, lactate, or GABA+Lactate, and then Dexa was subcutaneously injected for ten days. During Dexa injection period, FO, GABA, lactate, or GABA+Lactate were also administered, and grip strength test and muscle harvesting were performed on the day of the last Dexa injection. We compared the attenuation effect of FO with GABA, lactate, and GABA+lactate treatment. Nrf2 and HO-1 expressions were increased by Dexa but decreased by FO; SOD activity and glutathione levels were decreased by Dexa but increased by FO; NADPH oxidase activity was increased by Dexa but decreased by FO; NF-κB, IL-6, and TNF-α activities were increased by Dexa were decreased by FO; Cbl-b expression was increased by Dexa but restored by FO; IGF-1 expression was decreased by Dexa but increased by FO; FoxO3, Atrogin-1, and MuRF1 expressions were increased by Dexa but decreased by FO. The gastrocnemius thickness and weight were decreased by Dexa but increased by FO. The cross-sectional area of muscle fiber and grip strength were decreased by Dexa but increased by FO. In conclusion, FO decreased Dexa-induced oxidative stress through the upregulation of Nrf2/HO-1. Decreased oxidative stress led to decreased Cbl-b, FoxO3, atrogin1, and MuRF1, which attenuated muscle atrophy.

Immediate Effect of Instrument Assisted Soft Tissue Mobilization and Self-Stretching on Gastrocnemius Muscle Thickness and the Range of Motion

Background: Previous studies have been reported that when instrument assisted soft tissue mobilization (IASTM) and the self-myofascial release technique were used on the muscles. However, studies that applied the IASTM and self-stretching to the gastrocnemius muscle are thought to be necessary but there is no such previous study. Objectives: To investigate the effects of IASTM and self-stretching on gastrocnemius muscle thickness and the range of motion of joint in dorsiflexion in healthy college student. Design: Quasi-experimental design (single blind). Methods: The subjects were healthy college students in their 20s with a healthy body. As for the experimental method in this study, comparison between before and after the experiment was performed to compare the effects of myofascial release using IASTM and stretching. The preliminary survey investigated the range of motion (ROM) of ankle joint of the subjects. The thicknesses of gastrocnemius muscles were measured using ultrasonography. One day after the preliminary survey, IASTM interventions and self-stretching interventions were randomly selected. If IASTM intervention is selected, the IASTM of the gastrocnemius muscle was applied for 5 minutes. After than, muscle thickness and the ankle dorsiflexion ROM were measured. Subjects were asked to take a break for about one day after performing the intervention. Self-stretching was applied to the gastrocnemius muscle for 5 minutes identically. After than, muscle thickness and the ankle dorsiflexion ROM were measured. Results: The thickness of the gastrocnemius muscle decreased significantly IASTM intervention, and the ankle dorsiflexion ROM increased significantly IASTM intervention. Ankle dorsiflexion ROM increased significantly the selfstretching intervention. The amounts of change in ankle dorsiflexion ROM through the IASTM was significantly greater than that through self-stretching. Conclusion: In order to immediately increase muscle flexibility in a short time, the IASTM is more effective although the self-stretching method is also effective.

Muscle Assessment by Ultrasonography: Agreement with Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA) and Relationship with Physical Performance.

Different methods have been proposed to study skeletal muscle mass in sarcopenia diagnosis, although all have inherent drawbacks. The aim of this study was to evaluate the utility of muscle ultrasound in muscle assessment by studying its correlation with dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and calf circumference (CC), cut-off values for ultrasound-based detection of low muscle mass, and the correlation with muscle performance. Fifty-seven participants older than 70 years, underwent a muscle ultrasound study, DXA, calf circumference (CC) and functional assessment. Ultrasound measurements were taken in the femoral quadriceps (transverse plane) and in the medial gastrocnemius (transverse and longitudinal planes). Muscle function was assessed by gait speed, Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) and grip strength. Median age was 78.9 years (IQR 74.9 - 81.9), and 33 were women (57.9%). We found good correlation between muscle thickness of gastrocnemius muscle in transverse and longitudinal plane and appendicular lean mass measured by DXA (r=0.546 and r=0.689 respectively) and good correlations between muscle thickness of gastrocnemius in transverse and longitudinal plane with CC (r=0.651 and r=0.447 respectively). The thickness of gastrocnemius medialis optimal cut-off points for low muscle mass were 18,5mm in the transverse plane (Sensitivity: 77,8%, Specificity: 77,1%), and 17.3mm in the longitudinal plane (Sensitivity: 100%,Specificity: 68.8%). Muscle thickness was also significantly correlated with gait speed, SPPB and grip strength. Measures of gastrocnemius medialis thickness obtained by ultrasound are reliable and correlate well with DXA and CC values and muscle performance.

Age-Related Changes in Shear Wave Elastography Parameters of the Gastrocnemius Muscle in Association with Physical Performance in Healthy Adults

Background/Aims: to investigate new indicators for early recognition of physical performance decline. Shear wave elastrography, a new ultrasound technique, was discussed in this study. Methods: Gastrocnemius muscle thickness and muscle stiffness were detected by traditional ultrasound and shear wave elastrography in 108 Chinese aged 20–85 years, and then analyzed with physical performance together. Results: After 70 years old, the decline rate of muscle stiffness under contractive state was significantly faster than that of muscle thickness, muscle relaxed stiffness, and physical performance indicators. The correlation analysis showed that gastrocnemius contractive stiffness was positively related with handgrip strength, step length, and fast gait speed after adjusted by age and gender. Among physical performance variants, step length had closer relationship with muscle strength than repeated chair stands. Conclusions: The detection of gastrocnemius muscle by shear wave elastography reflected the change of lower-limb muscle stiffness with aging. Muscle contractive stiffness and step length measurement supplied novel ways for muscle performance and motor function assessment.

Muscle Architecture and Maturation Influence Sprint and Jump Ability in Young Boys: A Multistudy Approach.

Radnor, JM, Oliver, JL, Waugh, CM, Myer, GD, and Lloyd, RS. Muscle Architecture and Maturation Influence Sprint and Jump Ability in Young Boys: A Multistudy Approach. J Strength Cond Res 36(10): 2741-2751, 2022-This series of experiments examined the influence of medial gastrocnemius (GM) and vastus lateralis (VL) muscle architecture (muscle thickness, pennation angle, and fascicle length) on sprint and jump performance in pre-, circa-, and post-peak height velocity (PHV) boys. In experiment 1, 1-way analysis of variance and Cohen's d effect sizes demonstrated that most muscle architecture measures were significantly greater in post-PHV compared with pre-PHV boys ( d = 0.77-1.41; p < 0.05). For most sprint and jump variables, there were small to moderate differences between pre-PHV to circa-PHV and circa-PHV to post-PHV groups ( d = 0.58-0.93; p < 0.05) and moderate to large differences between pre-PHV and post-PHV groups ( d = 1.01-1.47; p < 0.05). Pearson's correlation analyses in experiment 2 determined that muscle architecture had small to moderate correlations with sprint and jump performance ( r = 0.228-0.707, p < 0.05), with strongest associations within the post-PHV cohort. Chi-squared analyses in experiment 3 identified that, over 18 months, more POST-POST responders than expected made positive changes in GM and VL muscle thickness. Significantly more PRE-POST subjects than expected displayed changes in maximal sprint speed, while significantly more POST-POST individuals than expected showed positive changes in jump height. Muscle architecture seems to be larger in more mature boys compared with their less mature peers and likely underlies their greater performance in sprinting and jumping tasks. Boys experiencing, or having experienced, PHV make the largest increases in muscle architecture and sprinting and jumping performance when tracked over 18 months.

Lower leg muscle structure and function are altered in long-distance runners with medial tibial stress syndrome: a case control study

BackgroundMedial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS) is a common lower leg injury experienced by runners. Although numerous risk factors are reported in the literature, many are non-modifiable and management of the injury remains difficult. Lower leg muscle structure and function are modifiable characteristics that influence tibial loading during foot-ground contact. Therefore, this study aimed to determine whether long-distance runners with MTSS displayed differences in in vivo lower leg muscle structure and function than matched asymptomatic runners.MethodsLower leg structure was assessed using ultrasound and a measure of lower leg circumference to quantify muscle cross-sectional area, thickness and lean lower leg girth. Lower leg function was assessed using a hand-held dynamometer to quantify maximal voluntary isometric contraction strength and a single leg heel raise protocol was used to measure ankle plantar flexor endurance. Outcome variables were compared between the limbs of long-distance runners suffering MTSS (n = 20) and matched asymptomatic controls (n = 20). Means, standard deviations, 95 % confidence intervals, mean differences and Cohen’s d values were calculated for each variable for the MTSS symptomatic and control limbs.ResultsMTSS symptomatic limbs displayed a significantly smaller flexor hallucis longus cross-sectional area, a smaller soleus thickness but a larger lateral gastrocnemius thickness than the control limbs. However, there was no statistical difference in lean lower leg girth. Compared to the matched control limbs, MTSS symptomatic limbs displayed deficits in maximal voluntary isometric contraction strength of the flexor hallucis longus, soleus, tibialis anterior and peroneal muscles, and reduced ankle plantar flexor endurance capacity.ConclusionsDifferences in lower leg muscle structure and function likely render MTSS symptomatic individuals less able to withstand the negative tibial bending moment generated during midstance, potentially contributing to the development of MTSS. The clinical implications of these findings suggest that rehabilitation protocols for MTSS symptomatic individuals should aim to improve strength of the flexor hallucis longus, soleus, tibialis anterior and peroneal muscles along with ankle plantar flexor endurance. However, the cross-sectional study design prevents us determining whether between group differences were a cause or effect of MTSS. Therefore, future prospective studies are required to substantiate the study findings.

Muscle Fascicles Exhibit Limited Passive Elongation Throughout the Rehabilitation of Achilles Tendon Rupture After Percutaneous Repair.

Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) results in long-term functional and structural deficits, characterized by reduced ankle mobility and plantarflexor muscle atrophy. However, it remains unclear how such functional impairments develop after surgical repair. While it is known that this injury negatively affects the tendon’s function, to date, limited work has focused on the short-term effect of ATR on the structure of the muscles in series. The aim of this study was to characterize changes in medial gastrocnemius architecture and its response to passive lengthening during the post-surgical rehabilitative period following ATR. Both injured and contralateral limbs from 10 subjects (1 female, BMI: 27.2 ± 3.9 kg/m2; age: 46 ± 10 years) with acute, unilateral ATR were assessed at 8, 12, and 16 weeks after percutaneous surgical repair. To characterize the component tissues of the muscle-tendon unit, resting medial gastrocnemius muscle thickness, fascicle length, and pennation angle were determined from ultrasound images with the ankle in both maximal plantarflexion and dorsiflexion. The ankle range of motion (ROM) was determined using motion capture; combined ultrasound and motion capture determined the relative displacement of the musculotendinous junction (MTJ) of the AT with the medial gastrocnemius. The ATR-injured gastrocnemius muscle consistently exhibited lower thickness, regardless of time point and ankle angle. Maximal ankle plantarflexion angles and corresponding fascicle lengths were lower on the injured ankle compared to the contralateral throughout rehabilitation. When normalized to the overall ankle ROM, both injured fascicles and MTJ displacement exhibited a comparably lower change in length when the ankle was passively rotated. These results indicate that when both ankles are passively exposed to the same ROM following ATR surgery, both ipsilateral Achilles tendon and gastrocnemius muscle fascicles exhibit limited lengthening compared to the contralateral MTU tissues. This appears to be consistent throughout the rehabilitation of gait, suggesting that current post-operative rehabilitative exercises do not appear to induce muscle adaptations in the affected MTU.

Different Foot Positioning During Calf Training to Induce Portion-Specific Gastrocnemius Muscle Hypertrophy

Nunes, JP, Costa, BDV, Kassiano, W, Kunevaliki, G, Castro-e-Souza, P, Rodacki, ALF, Fortes, LS, and Cyrino, ES. Different foot positioning during calf training to induce portion-specific gastrocnemius muscle hypertrophy. J Strength Cond Res 34(8): 2347-2351, 2020-The aim of this study was to compare the changes in gastrocnemius muscle thickness (MT) between conditions such as which foot was pointed outward (FPO), foot was pointed inward (FPI), or foot was pointed forward (FPF). Twenty-two young men (23 ± 4 years) were selected and performed a whole-body resistance training program 3 times per week for 9 weeks, with differences in the exercise specific for calves. The calf-raise exercise was performed unilaterally, in a pin-loaded seated horizontal leg-press machine, in 3 sets of 20-25 repetitions for training weeks 1-3 and 4 sets for weeks 4-9. Each subject's leg was randomly assigned for 1 of the 3 groups according to the foot position: FPO, FPI, and FPF. Measurements with a B-mode ultrasound were performed to assess changes in MT of medial and lateral gastrocnemius heads. After the training period, there were observed increases in MT of both medial (FPO = 8.4%, FPI = 3.8%, and FPF = 5.8%) and lateral (FPO = 5.5%, FPI = 9.1%, and FPF = 6.4%) gastrocnemius heads, and significant differences for magnitude of the gains were observed between FPO and FPI conditions (p < 0.05). Positioning FPO potentiated the increases in MT of the medial gastrocnemius head, whereas FPI provided greater gains for the lateral gastrocnemius head. Our results suggest that head-specific muscle hypertrophy may be obtained selectively for gastrocnemius after 9 weeks of calf training in young male adults.

Gastrocnemius thickness by ultrasonography indicates the low skeletal muscle mass in Japanese elderly people

BackgroundThis study aimed to examine the relationship between gastrocnemius thickness by ultrasonography and the skeletal muscle mass in Japanese elderly people. MethodsThe total of 195 healthy Japanese aged ≥65 years participated (average age, 72.4 ± 4.3y; male, n = 72). The skeletal muscle mass index (SMI) was measured using the bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and the gastrocnemius thickness and collected echo intensity (CEI) were measured using ultrasonography. The low SMI was defined as <7.0 kg/m2 in men and <5.7 kg/m2 in women, and participants were classified into the low SMI and the normal group. Association of the gastrocnemius thickness with the low SMI was analyzed by the logistic regression analysis after adjusting age, gender, body mass index (BMI), physical performances and CEI. The cut-off value of gastrocnemius thickness to indicate the low SMI was calculated by a receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. ResultsThe low SMI rate was 16.9％ (n = 33). BMI was significantly lower (19.9 vs 22.5 kg/m2; p < 0.01), the gastrocnemius thickness lower (11.0 vs 13.3 mm; p < 0.01), and CEI higher (97.5 vs 87.0; p = 0.02) in the low SMI group than those in the normal group. The gastrocnemius thickness was independently associated with the low SMI (OR, 0.584; 95% CI, 0.416–0.818; p < 0.01). The cut-off value of gastrocnemius thickness was <11.6 mm (AUC, 0.83; sensitivity, 0.83; specificity, 0.73; p < 0.01). ConclusionGastrocnemius thickness by ultrasonography was associated with low skeletal muscle mass, and the cut-off value to indicate the low skeletal muscle mass was revealed.

Ultrasonography versus bioelectrical impedance analysis: which predicts muscle strength better?

ABSTRACT Background & Aim: Muscle strength seems to be more relevant to the functionality than muscle mass in sarcopenia. Different diagnostic techniques are available for the evaluation of muscle mass. Ultrasonography (USG) seems to have some advantages compared to other techniques especially bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) including being not affected of the results by the factors like extreme body mass indexes (BMI) or hypervolemia. The aim of the study is to determine and compare the muscle strength prediction value of muscle mass measured by using USG or BIA and determine the cut-off values for the Turkish population. Methods: One hundred and thirty six patients admitted to geriatrics outpatient clinic for comprehensive geriatric assessment were included in the study. Body composition was determined by BIA and skeletal muscle mass ındex (SMI) was measured. Thickness of the gastrocnemius muscle was measured via USG. Diagnosis of sarcopenia was made according to the EWSGOP 2 diagnostic criteria. Results: The best cut-off value for gastrocnemius muscle thickness to predict low HGS was ≤13.8 mm (AUC:0.690,p <0.001). SMI was not found to predict low HGS (AUC:0.573,p >0.05). Comparison of AUCs for gastrocnemius muscle thickness and SMI showed that gastrocnemius muscle thickness had higher AUC (p=0.008). For predicting sarcopenia, the best cut-off value of gastrocnemius muscle thickness was found to be ≤12.3 mm in women (AUC: 0.862,p <0.001) and ≤12.3 mm in men (AUC:0.900, p < 0.001). Conclusions: In this study, we found that gastrocnemius thickness measured by USG seems to predict low HGS better than SMI measured by BIA.

Ultrasound measurements of gastrocnemius muscle thickness in older people with sarcopenia.

BackgroundSarcopenia, defined as low muscle mass and low muscle strength and/or low physical performance, is affecting more and more people. The European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People has suggested the routine community screening. However, selecting the most suitable method to evaluate muscle mass to detect sarcopenia in community screening is a challenge. This study sought to analyze the correlation between ultrasound (US) measurements of the gastrocnemius muscle and low muscle mass, as defined by sarcopenia.MethodsOne hundred thirty-five elderly participants were enrolled. US measurements included muscle thickness (MT), fat thickness (FT), MT/body mass index (BMI), and MT/FT. The definition of low muscle mass was based on the proposal from the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia, in which the cutoff values for low muscle mass were 7.0 kg/m2 for men and 5.4 kg/m2 for women using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The participants were divided into low and normal muscle mass groups. Participants with low muscle mass were divided into presarcopenia, sarcopenia, and severe sarcopenia groups.ResultsThose in the low muscle mass group were older and had lower weights and BMIs (P<0.05). In addition, MT and MT/BMI were lower in the low muscle mass group (P<0.05). Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that MT was the factor associated with low skeletal muscle mass (OR =0.001, P<0.001). ANOVA revealed that MT was not significantly different between subjects with presarcopenia, sarcopenia, and severe sarcopenia (F=1.69, P=0.192). Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses indicated that the cutoff value of the gastrocnemius MT for low muscle mass was 1.50 cm.ConclusionMT measured by US was identified as the factor associated with low skeletal muscle mass. Those with gastrocnemius MT less than 1.5 cm can be considered as low muscle mass.

Low-intensity microcurrent therapy promotes regeneration of atrophied calf muscles in immobilized rabbits.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the intensity-specific regenerative effects of microcurrent therapy on gastrocnemius muscle atrophy induced by cast-immobilization in rabbits. Fifteen rabbits were randomly allocated to 3 groups after cast removal: cast-immobilization and sham microcurrent therapy for 2 weeks (group 1); cast-immobilization and microcurrent therapy (25 μA) for 2 weeks (group 2); cast-immobilization and microcurrent therapy (5,000 μA) for 2 weeks (group 3). Clinical parameters [calf circumference, compound muscle action potential (CMAP) of the tibial nerve, thickness of gastrocnemius muscle], cross sectional area of gastrocnemius muscle fibres, and immunohistochemistry was evaluated. The clinical parameters representing mean atrophic changes in group 2 were significantly lower than those in group 3. The cross sectional area of the gastrocnemius muscle fibres and immunohistochemical parameters in group 2 were significantly greater than those in group 3. The results showed that low-intensity microcurrent therapy can more effectively promote regeneration in atrophied gastrocnemius muscle than high-intensity microcurrent therapy.

Therapeutic effect of microcurrent on calf muscle atrophy in immobilized rabbit.

Immobilization causes significant muscle loss. In this study we assessed the regenerative effect of microcurrent electrical stimulation (MES) on gastrocnemius muscle (GCM) atrophy induced by immobilization by cast (IC) in rabbits. Fifteen rabbits were divided into 3 groups: IC (group 1); IC and free re-ambulation for 2 weeks after cast removal (CR) (group 2); and IC and MES for 2 weeks after CR (group 3). We evaluated clinical parameters (calf circumference, compound muscle action potential of tibial nerve, and thickness of GCM by ultrasound), histomorphometric data (muscle composition and cross-sectional area), and immunohistochemistry. Mean atrophic changes in clinical parameters in group 3 were significantly less than those in groups 1 and 2 (P < 0.05). Histomophometric and immunohistochemical parameters in group 3 were significantly greater than those in groups 1 and 2, respectively (P < 0.05). MES prevents muscle atrophy and facilitates regeneration of muscle. Muscle Nerve 58: 270-276, 2018.

Extracellular polysaccharides purified from Aureobasidium pullulans SM‑2001 (Polycan) inhibit dexamethasone‑induced muscle atrophy in mice.

The present study assessed the beneficial skeletal muscle-preserving effects of extracellular polysaccharides from Aureobasidium pullulans SM-2001 (Polycan) (EAP) on dexamethasone (DEXA)-induced catabolic muscle atrophy in mice. To investigate whether EAP prevented catabolic DEXA-induced muscle atrophy, and to examine its mechanisms of action, EAP (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) was administered orally, once a day for 24 days. EAP treatment was initiated 2 weeks prior to DEXA treatment (1 mg/kg, once a day for 10 days) in mice. Body weight alterations, serum biochemistry, calf thickness, calf muscle strength, gastrocnemius muscle thickness and weight, gastrocnemius muscle antioxidant defense parameters, gastrocnemius muscle mRNA expression, histology and histomorphometry were subsequently assessed. After 24 days, DEXA control mice exhibited muscle atrophy according to all criteria indices. However, these muscle atrophy symptoms were significantly inhibited by oral treatment with all three doses of EAP. Regarding possible mechanisms of action, EAP exhibited favorable ameliorating effects on DEXA-induced catabolic muscle atrophy via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects; these effects were mediated by modulation of the expression of genes involved in muscle protein synthesis (AKT serine/threonine kinase 1, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, adenosine A1 receptor and transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 4) and degradation (atrogin-1, muscle RING-finger protein-1, myostatin and sirtuin 1). Therefore, these results indicated that EAP may be helpful in improving muscle atrophies of various etiologies. EAP at 400 mg/kg exhibited favorable muscle protective effects against DEXA-induced catabolic muscle atrophy, comparable with the effects of oxymetholone (50 mg/kg), which has been used to treat various muscle disorders.

The training-specific adaptations resulting from resistance training, gymnastics and plyometric training, and non-training in adolescent athletes

Although previous research has investigated the training-specific adaptations to training in adults, there is a paucity of research aimed at investigating these adaptations in adolescent athletes. As such, adolescent athletes’ training-specific adaptations from three different training interventions were investigated in this study. Sixteen adolescent athletes participated in this study, whereby eight performed both training interventions and eight the non-training control. Pre- and post-testing was performed for each intervention with the testing battery: ultrasonography of the vastus lateralis and lateral gastrocnemius, countermovement jump, squat jump, and isometric mid-thigh pull. The resistance training group had large significant increases in isometric mid-thigh pull relative peak force ( p &lt; 0.01, g = 0.85 (−0.01, 1.71)) and vastus lateralis fascicle length ( p = 0.04, g = 0.94 (0.07, 1.80)). The gymnastics and plyometric group demonstrated large significant changes in vastus lateralis pennation angle ( p = 0.03, g = −0.94 (−1.81, −0.08)) and fascicle length ( p = 0.03, g = 1.07 (0.19, 1.95)), and moderate significant increases in lateral gastrocnemius thickness ( p = 0.01, g = 0.63 (−0.21, 1.47)) and eccentric leg stiffness ( p = 0.03, g = 0.60 (−0.24, 1.44)). No significant changes were observed for any variables in the non-training group. The resistance training evoked increases in lower-body force producing capabilities, whereas the gymnastics and plyometric training evoked changes in muscle structure and inherent muscle qualities.

Is spasticity always the same? An observational study comparing the features of spastic equinus foot in patients with chronic stroke and multiple sclerosis

Spasticity is common in stroke and multiple sclerosis. To treat spasticity we have a wide range of interventions, whose application may depend not only on the severity of spasticity but also on its etiology. Consequently, a better understanding of muscle spasticity in different neurological diseases may inform clinicians as to the more appropriate therapeutic approach. Our aim was to compare the clinical and ultrasonographic features of spastic equinus in patients with chronic stroke and multiple sclerosis. Thirty-eight patients with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis and 38 chronic stroke patients with spastic equinus were evaluated at the affected ankle according to the following outcomes: modified Ashworth scale, Tardieu scale, passive range of motion, spastic gastrocnemius muscle echo intensity and thickness. Affected calf muscles tone was significantly greater in patients with chronic stroke (modified Ashworth scale P=0.008; Tardieu scale angle P=0.004) as well as spastic gastrocnemius muscle echo intensity (P<0.001). Affected ankle range of motion was significantly greater in patients with multiple sclerosis (P<0.001) as well as spastic gastrocnemius muscle thickness (medialis: P=0.003; lateralis: P=0.004). Our findings evidenced that the same pattern of spasticity (equinus foot) has some different features according to its etiology. This may help the management of spasticity.

The effects of a multisensory dynamic balance training on the thickness of lower limb muscles in ultrasonography in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy.

[Purpose] This study aimed to investigate the effects of multisensory dynamic balance training on muscles thickness such as rectus femoris, anterior tibialis, medial gastrocnemius, lateral gastrocnemius in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy by using ultrasonography. [Subjects and Methods] Fifteen children diagnosed with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy were divided randomly into the balance training group and control group. The experimental group only received a multisensory dynamic balance training, while the control group performed general physiotherapy focused balance and muscle strengthening exercise based Neurodevelopmental treatment. Both groups had a therapy session for 30 minutes per day, three times a week for six weeks. The ultrasonographic muscle thickness were obtained in order to compare and analyze muscle thickness before and after in each group. [Result] The experimental group had significant increases in muscle thickness in the rectus femoris, tibialis anterior, medial gastrocnemius and lateral gastrocnemius muscles. The control group had significant increases in muscle thickness in the tibialis anterior. The test results of the rectus femoris, medial gastrocnemius and lateral gastrocnemius muscle thickness values between the groups showed significant differences. [Conclusion] In conclusion, a multisensory dynamic balance training can be recommended as a treatment method for patients with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy.

Chronic effects of simultaneous electromyostimulation and vibration on leg blood flow in spinal cord injury.

Randomized two-group parallel. The objective of this study was to analyze the adaptations on the popliteal artery (mean blood velocity (MBV), peak blood velocity (PBV), arterial resting diameter (RD) and blood flow (BF)) induced by 12 weeks of simultaneous application of whole-body vibration and electromyostimulation (WBV+ES) in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI). Secondarily, the musculoskeletal effects of this therapy on the gastrocnemius muscle thickness (MT) and femoral neck bone mineral density (BMD) were analyzed. Valladolid, Spain. Seventeen SCI patients (American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) A or B) were randomly assigned to the experimental group (EG=9) or the control group (CG=8). Each subject was assessed in four different occasions: at baseline, after 6 weeks (Post-6) and 12 weeks of the treatment (Post-12) and 8 weeks after the end of the treatment (Post-20). Subjects in the EG performed 30 10-min sessions of WBV+ES during 12 weeks. In the EG, RD increased compared with the baseline value at Post-6 (9.5%, P<0.01), Post-12 (19.0%, P<0.001) and Post-20 (16.7%, P<0.001). Similarly, in the EG, BF increased compared with the baseline value and with CG only at Post-12 ((33.9%, P<0.01) and (72.5%, P<0.05), respectively). Similarly, WBV+ES increased the MT of the gastrocnemius. BMD of both hips remained invariable during the study. CG showed no change at any point. WBV+ES improved popliteal artery BF, RD and MT after 12 weeks in SCI patients. This increase in RD remained above baseline after 8 weeks. The combination of WBV and ES could be considered a promising alternative to reverse the musculoskeletal atrophy and improve peripheral vascular properties in SCI patients.

Muscle structure and stiffness assessment after botulinum toxin type A injection. A systematic review

BackgroundBotulinum toxin type A manages spasticity disorders in neurological central diseases. Some studies have reported that it might induce muscle changes. MethodsWe present a literature review abiding by the PRISMA statement guidelines. The purpose was to explore the structural and passive biomechanical muscle properties after botulinum toxin type A injections in healthy and spastic limb muscles, on animals and humans, as well as methods for evaluating these properties. We searched the PubMed and Cochrane Library databases using the following keywords: “Botulinum toxin” AND (“muscle structure” OR “muscle atrophy”) and, “Botulinum toxin” AND “muscle elasticity”. ResultsFrom the 228 initially identified articles, 21 articles were included. Histological analyses were performed, especially on animals. A neurogenic atrophy systematically occurred. In humans, one year after a single injection, the histological recovery remained incomplete. Furthermore, 2D ultrasound analyses showed a reduction of the gastrocnemius thickness and pennation angle. MRI volumetric analysis evidenced muscular atrophy six months or one year after a single injection. Passive muscle stiffness depends on these structural changes. On the short term, the biomechanical analysis showed an elastic modulus increase in animals whereas no change was recorded in humans. On the short term, ultrasound elastography imaging showed a decreased elastic modulus. DiscussionTo date, few data are available, but all show a structural and mechanical muscle impact post injections, specifically muscle atrophy which can linger over time. Further studies are necessary to validate this element, and the possibility of change must be taken into account particularly with repeated injections. Thus, in clinical practice, 2D ultrasound and ultrasound elastography are two non-invasive techniques that will help physicians to develop an efficient long term monitoring.