Thamnophis Research Articles

Mitochondria as central characters in a complex narrative: Linking genomics, energetics, pace-of-life, and aging in natural populations of garter snakes.

As a pacesetter for physiological processes, variation in metabolic rate can determine the shape of energetic trade-offs and thereby drive variation in life-history traits. In turn, such variation in metabolic performance and life-histories can have profound consequences for lifespan and lifetime fitness. Thus, the extent to which metabolic rate variation is due to phenotypic plasticity or fixed genetic differences among individuals or populations is likely to be shaped by natural selection. Here, we first present a generalized framework describing the central role of mitochondria in processes linking environmental, genomic, physiological, and aging variation. We then present a test of these relationships in an exemplary system: populations of garter snakes (Thamnophis elegans) exhibiting contrasting life-history strategies - fast-growing, early-reproducing, and fast-aging (FA) versus slow-growing, late-reproducing, and slow-aging (SA). Previous work has characterized divergences in mitochondrial function, reactive oxygen species processing, and whole-organism metabolic rate between these contrasting life-history ecotypes. Here, we report new data on cellular respiration and mitochondrial genomics and synthesize these results with previous work. We test hypotheses about the causes and implications of mitochondrial genome variation within this generalized framework. First, we demonstrate that snakes of the FA ecotype increase cellular metabolic rate across their lifespan, while the opposite pattern holds for SA snakes, implying that reduced energetic throughput is associated with a longer life. Second, we show that variants in mitochondrial genomes are segregating across the landscape in a manner suggesting selection on the physiological consequences of this variation in habitats varying in temperature, food availability, and rates of predation. Third, we demonstrate functional variation in whole-organism metabolic rate related to these mitochondrial genome sequence variants. With this synthesis of numerous datasets, we are able to further characterize how variation across levels of biological organization interact within this generalized framework and how this has resulted in the emergence of distinct life-history ecotypes that vary in their rates of aging and lifespan.

Garter snakes are surprisingly social, forming ‘friendships’ with fellow serpents

Garter snakes are surprisingly social, forming ‘friendships’ with fellow serpents

Captivity Affects Head Morphology and Allometry in Headstarted Garter Snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis.

In response to the growing number of amphibian and reptiles species in decline, many conservation managers have implemented captive breeding and headstarting programs in an effort to restore these populations. However, many of these programs suffer from low survival success, and it is often unclear as to why some individuals do not survive after reintroduction. Here I document changes to head morphology in the eastern garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, in response to time spent in captivity. Thamnophis raised on three diet treatments all differed in head size from wild individuals, and head size differed between the three treatments. Overall, head size was smaller in all three diet treatments than in wild snakes, potentially limiting the available prey for the captive garter snakes. Allometric patterns of growth in head size were also different for each diet treatment. Several potential implications of these changes in morphology are discussed, and what these changes may mean for other species that are part of headstarting and reintroduction programs.

Aggregation and social interaction in garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis)

Previous research has shown that competition, familiarity, diet, and relatedness can all influence aggregation patterns in garter snakes. We controlled for these factors and examined social aggregation patterns in juvenile Eastern garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis). We assayed snakes individually for consistent individual differences in boldness and sociability. We then placed snakes in groups of 10 in an enclosure with four shelters and observed their social interactions over a period of 8 days. We demonstrate that the snakes actively seek social interaction, prefer to remain with larger aggregates, and associate nonrandomly with specific individuals or groups. We show that their social interaction patterns are influenced by individual boldness, sociability, and age. The snakes’ social networks were perturbed twice a day by “shuffling” their locations. Despite these disturbances, the snakes eventually re-formed their preferred social environment. Aggregation and exploration patterns also varied across time, with most activity occurring later in the day. These results highlight the complexity of snake sociality and may have important implications for conservation efforts. Snakes are often considered nonsocial animals, but this is inaccurate. We used social network analyses to compare juvenile Eastern garter snakes’ group behaviors to their individual personalities. Our research demonstrates that these snakes actively seek out social interaction and prefer to join and remain with larger groups and that their social interaction patterns are influenced by consistent individual differences in boldness and sociability. Our work contributes to a sparse but growing body of literature on sociability in reptiles. This work is important for changing perceptions among the scientific community and the public as a whole. As a consequence, it may aid efforts in developing appropriate conservation techniques that consider sociability patterns in relocated reptiles.

The geographic mosaic in parallel: Matching patterns of newt tetrodotoxin levels and snake resistance in multiple predator-prey pairs.

The Geographic Mosaic Theory of Coevolution predicts that coevolutionary arms races will vary over time and space because of the diverse ecological settings and population histories of interacting species across the landscape. Thus, understanding coevolution may require investigating broad sets of populations sampled across the range of the interaction. In addition, comparing coevolutionary dynamics between similar systems may reveal the importance of specific factors that structure coevolution. Here, we examine geographic patterns of prey traits and predator traits in the relatively unstudied interaction between the Sierra garter snake (Thamnophis couchii) and sympatric prey, the rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa), Sierra newt (Ta. sierrae) and California newt (Ta. torosa). This system parallels, in space and phenotypes, a classic example of coevolution between predatory common garter snakes (Th. sirtalis) and their toxic newt prey exhibiting hotspots of newt tetrodotoxin (TTX) levels and matching snake TTX resistance. We quantified prey and predator traits from hundreds of individuals across their distributions, and functional trait matching at sympatric sites. We show strong regional patterns of trait covariation across the shared ranges of Th. couchii and newt prey. Traits differ significantly among localities, with lower newt TTX levels and snake TTX resistance at the northern latitudes, and higher TTX levels and snake resistance at southern latitudes. Newts and snakes in northern populations show the highest degree of functional trait matching despite possessing the least extreme traits. Conversely, newts and snakes in southern populations show the greatest mismatch despite possessing exaggerated traits, with some snakes so resistant to TTX they would be unaffected by any sympatric newt. Nevertheless, individual variation was substantial, and appears to offer the opportunity for continued reciprocal selection in most populations. Overall, the three species of newts appear to be engaged in a TTX-mediated arms race with Th. couchii. These patterns are congruent with those seen between newts and Th. sirtalis, including the same latitudinal gradient in trait covariation, and the potential 'escape' from the arms race by snake predators. Such concordance in broad scale patterns across two distinct systems suggests common phenomena might structure geographic mosaics in similar ways.

Sex linkage of the skeletal muscle sodium channel gene (SCN4A) explains apparent deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium of tetrodotoxin-resistance alleles in garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis).

The arms race between tetrodotoxin-bearing Pacific newts (Taricha) and their garter snake predators (Thamnophis) in western North America has become a classic example of coevolution, shedding light on predator-prey dynamics, the molecular basis of adaptation, and patterns of convergent evolution. Newts are defended by tetrodotoxin (TTX), a neurotoxin that binds to voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav proteins), arresting electrical activity in nerves and muscles and paralyzing would-be predators. However, populations of the common garter snake (T. sirtalis) have overcome this defense, largely through polymorphism at the locus SCN4A, which renders the encoded protein (Nav1.4) less vulnerable to TTX. Previous work suggests that SCN4A commonly shows extreme deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) in these populations, which has been interpreted as the result of intense selection imposed by newts. Here we show that much of this apparent deviation can be attributed to sex linkage of SCN4A. Using genomic data and quantitative PCR, we show that SCN4A is on the Z chromosome in Thamnophis and other advanced snakes. Taking Z-linkage into account, we find that most apparent deviations from HWE can be explained by female hemizygosity rather than low heterozygosity. Sex linkage can affect mutation rates, selection, and drift, and our results suggest that Z-linkage of SCN4A may make significant contributions to the overall dynamics of the coevolutionary arms race between newts and snakes.

Courtship in the male red-sided garter snake is dependent on neural aromatase activity during winter dormancy.

The red-sided garter snake exhibits a dissociated reproductive pattern, mating at a time when their gonads are quiescent and circulating sex steroids, initially reported to be low, have been found to be elevated during the breeding season. However, the only cue identified that initiates courtship behavior and mating in the red-sided garter snake is an extended period of low-temperature dormancy (LTD) followed by exposure to warm temperatures. In this study, we examined a possible association between winter dormancy, sex steroid hormone metabolism, and initiation of reproductive behavior in the male red-sided garter snake. Upon emergence from winter dormancy, courtship behavior was assessed using attractive females as stimuli. Animals receiving implants containing 1,4,6-androstatriene-3,17-dione (ATD), an aromatase inhibiter, showed little or no courtship behavior, while animals implanted with ATD + 17β estradiol (E2 ) or blank implants exhibited normal courtship. In addition, neurons in the pathways critical in the control of reproductive behavior were examined using the Golgi method. Examination of brains collected upon emergence revealed animals implanted with ATD had a significantly reduced number of dendritic spines compared to controls and animals treated with ATD + E2 . This study provides the first documentation that courtship behavior and mating in the male red-sided garter snake appears to be controlled not by LTD alone, but in conjunction with sex steroid hormones. Moreover, behavioral data suggest that the aromatization of androgens during LTD appears to be critical for the initiation of reproductive behavior in the male red-sided garter snakes.

In Memoriam

Jesse E. Purdy, a consummate comparative psychologist whose research started with laboratory rats but quickly expanded to include garter snakes, Weddell seals, cuttlefish, killer whales, coho salmon, and numerous more common species of fish, passed away on April 16, 2018, after a long and heroic battle with cancer. Purdy is survived by Karen, his wife of 45 years, and their two children, Kristopher and Matthew. He is also survived by his students and colleagues at Southwestern University who came to share his vision and enthusiasm for a life of inquiry and adventure and will continue to share that with their own students for decades to come.

CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF A SOUTHWESTERN ENDEMIC, THE TEXAS GARTER SNAKE, THAMNOPHIS SIRTALIS ANNECTENS: AN INTEGRATIVE PERSPECTIVE

We investigate the taxonomic status of the Texas garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis annectens, a species of greatest conservation need in Texas. We broadly test the hypothesis that an integrative approach to species conservation has greater utility than using only a single data type (e.g., molecular, morphological, behavioral, or ecological) by demonstrating how ecological niche modeling and molecular genetics can be used synergistically to resolve taxonomic classifications. Using a phylogenetic analysis based on molecular data, we found that some putative T. s. annectens specimens actually represent a co-occurring subspecies (the red-sided garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis), which is not of conservation concern. However, both T. s. annectens and T. s. parietalis are genetically distinctive from another co-occurring subspecies, Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis, and the ecological distinctness of T. s. annectens from T. s. parietalis suggests that T. s. annectens is, in fact, a distinct evolutionary subunit. Only when both genetic and ecological information were included was the distinctiveness of T. s. annectens apparent, thus highlighting the need for integrative approaches in conservation management regardless of the taxa in question.

Neuronal plasticity in the forebrain of the male red-sided garter snake: Effect of season, low temperature dormancy, and hormonal status on dendritic spine density

Numerous studies have reported seasonal variations in regional morphology in the brains of seasonally breeding vertebrates. These alterations of neuronal morphology and dendritic spine density appear to be an active process within specific brain nuclei that regulate seasonal behaviors. In many cases, this neural plasticity has been found to be in response to changes in circulating sex steroid hormone levels and occur within pathways essential for the control of reproductive behaviors. Male red-sided garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis) (RSGS) exhibit a dissociated reproductive pattern where mating is initiated at a time when the gonads and steroidogenesis are inactive. And, although circulating levels of sex steroid hormones are elevated at the initiation of courtship and mating, the only known cue found to initiate courtship behavior and mating, is an extended period of low temperature dormancy (LTD) followed by exposure to warm temperatures. This study was designed to examine the role of seasons, sex steroid hormones, and LTD on neuronal and dendritic spine density within the anterior hypothalamus-preoptic area (AHPOA), a region shown to be critical for the regulation of reproductive behaviors. In the male RSGS, the density of dendritic spines on neurons in the AHPOA was significantly greater in spring, actively courting animals, than summer or fall, non-courting animals. Animals maintained under conditions of LTD exhibited significantly increasing spine density as time maintained in LTD increased. Animals receiving either testosterone or estradiol had a significantly greater density of dendritic spines than control animals. This study offers evidence suggesting that the “set up” of the pathways controlling courtship behavior and mating in the male RSGS, is not due solely to an extended period of LTD, but that an extended period of LTD in conjunction with circulating sex steroid hormones are critical for the initiation of reproductive behavior.

Variations in tetrodotoxin levels in populations of Taricha granulosa are expressed in the morphology of their cutaneous glands

Tetrodotoxin (TTX), one of the most toxic substances in nature, is present in bacteria, invertebrates, fishes, and amphibians. Marine organisms seem to bioaccumulate TTX from their food or acquire it from symbiotic bacteria, but its origin in amphibians is unclear. Taricha granulosa can exhibit high TTX levels, presumably concentrated in skin poison glands, acting as an agent of selection upon predatory garter snakes (Thamnophis). This co-evolutionary arms race induces variation in T. granulosa TTX levels, from very high to undetectable. Using morphology and biochemistry, we investigated differences in toxin localization and quality between two populations at the extremes of toxicity. TTX concentration within poison glands is related to the volume of a single cell type in which TTX occurs exclusively in distinctive secretory granules, suggesting a relationship between granule structure and chemical composition. TTX was detected in mucous glands in both populations, contradicting the general understanding that these glands do not secrete defensive chemicals and expanding currently held interpretations of amphibian skin gland functionality. Skin secretions of the two populations differed in low-mass molecules and proteins. Our results demonstrate that interpopulation variation in TTX levels is related to poison gland morphology.

The effect of predator kairomones on caudal regeneration by Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders (Desmognathus ochrophaeus)

Many prey use autotomy as an antipredator mechanism. Rapid regeneration of autotomized appendages is beneficial because forfeited tissues may serve as organs for energy storage, accessories for locomotion, or indicators of social status. We monitored levels of caudal regeneration by Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders (Desmognathus ochrophaeus Cope, 1859) exposed to kairomones from predatory Eastern Garter Snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis (Linnaeus, 1758)). After the induction of autotomy, salamanders were exposed to one of three treatment regimens: blank (water), or acute (30 min per week) or chronic (constant) exposure to predator kairomones during a 12-week study period. Overall, the mean volume of regenerated tissue, as a percentage of the original tail volume, was highest for individuals exposed to the blank versus predator kairomones. When the combined effects of time elapsed since the induction of caudal autotomy and the different treatment regimens were considered, we found that the mean volume of regenerated tissue was significantly greater for control salamanders beginning 8 weeks after autotomy. The mechanism contributing to the differential rates of regeneration among individuals in our treatment groups is unknown, but previous work suggests that elevated stress related to predation threat can have detrimental effects on wound healing and growth in amphibians.

Isolation and characterization of abundantly-expressed cDNAs from the Harderian gland of the garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis: Colubridae)

The Harderian gland (HG) is an orbital structure whose proteinaceous secretions pass through the nasolacrimal duct to the vomeronasal organ (VNO). Though these three structures occur in many tetrapod vertebrates, the garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) is one of the few vertebrates in which the passage of the proteinaceous secretions have been experimentally shown. Secreted proteins from the HG may function as transporters for chemical signals to the VNO epithelium. To investigate the proteins being produced by the HG of the garter snake, cDNA libraries were constructed from HG mRNA, and several individual cDNAs were analyzed by sequencing, RT-qPCR, and PCR on genomic DNA. Two of the three cDNAs that were characterized are abundantly expressed only in the Harderian gland and contain putative signal sequences for secretion, which makes them candidates for transporter proteins secreted from the HG. One is a member of the large lipocalin family of proteins, based on its similarity to other members of that protein family. Many lipocalins are binding/carrier proteins for a variety of ligands. The other is a family of proteins, with five members identified so far, all of unknown structure and function and present in the garter snake genome but not in other squamate genomes.

Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury Concentrations in the Livers of Free-Ranging Common Garter Snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) from Minnesota, USA

Livers of 25 common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) from Minnesota (2015-16) were analyzed for heavy metals by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. Dry weight mean concentrations (ranges μg/g) were arsenic, 118.94 (0.26-1245.56); cadmium, 1.44 (0.15-7.59); lead, 0.21 (<0.10-0.78); and mercury, 0.30 (<0.5-2.25).

Estimating relationships between size and fecundity in the threatened giant garter snake in seminatural and agricultural wetlands

AbstractIncreasing numbers of populations of threatened and endangered plants and animals occur in environments altered by human activity. Life history traits may vary among populations in natural and human‐dominated environments, and therefore, management strategies may need to be tailored to different environments to promote persistence. The primary objectives of this project were to estimate the probability of being pregnant for females of the threatened giant garter snake (Thamnophis gigas) and test for differences in these demographic parameters between populations in seminatural wetlands and wetlands in areas dominated by rice agriculture. We also hypothesized that the probability of breeding and the number of fetuses would increase with increasing body size, a commonly reported relationship for snakes. We analysed data on T. gigas fecundity from 9 years using a Bayesian hurdle model and found no evidence of variation in the probability of being pregnant or in the number of fetuses given pregnancy for T. gigas in the two environments. The probability of being pregnant in a year was higher for females of larger size and ranged from &lt;0.10 for snakes smaller than 631 mm snout‐to‐vent length (SVL) to &gt;0.96 for the largest females. Similarly, given that a female was pregnant, the number of fetuses produced was higher for larger females. Pregnant females of average SVL were expected to produce 14 fetuses, and the largest females were expected to produce 34 fetuses. The inferences from our analyses are needed for subsequent population modeling, which will guide planning and decision‐making for T. gigas.

Microgeographic variation in body condition of three Mexican garter snakes in central Mexico.

BackgroundGeographic variation in body size and condition can reveal differential local adaptation to resource availability or climatic factors. Body size and condition are related to fitness in garter snakes (Thamnophis), thus good body condition may increase survival, fecundity in females, and mating success in males. Phylogenetically related species in sympatry are predicted to exhibit similar body condition when they experience similar environmental conditions. We focused on interspecific and geographical variation in body size and condition in three sympatric Mexican garter snakes from the highlands of Central Mexico.MethodsWe assessed SVL, mass, and body condition (obtained from Major axis linear regression of ln-transformed body mass on ln-transformed SVL) in adults and juveniles of both sexes of Thamnophis eques, T. melanogaster, and T. scalaris sampled at different locations and ranges from 3–11 years over a 20-year period.ResultsWe provide a heterogeneous pattern of sexual and ontogenic reproductive status variations of body size and condition among local populations. Each garter snake species shows locations with good and poor body condition; juvenile snakes show similar body condition between populations, adults show varying body condition between populations, and adults also show sex differences in body condition. We discuss variations in body condition as possibly related to the snakes’ life cycle differences.

Predatory Attack by a Western Terrestrial Garter Snake on a Nestling Dark-Eyed Junco

I observed a Western Terrestrial Garter Snake (Thamnophis elegans) attacking a large (approximately 9-d-old) nestling Dark-eyed Junco (Junco hyemalis) on 7 July 2018 near Rattlesnake Creek, Missoula County, Montana. The snake held the stillliving nestling by its head (the head was mostly enveloped by the snake's jaws) and continued to do so for 3 min before it released the now-dead nestling when disturbed by my presence. The dead nestling exhibited skin wounds on the neck but no other superficial injury. Predation on birds by Western Terrestrial Garter Snakes is infrequently reported, and I found only 2 other reports of predation on juncos by this snake species.

Effect of intracoelomic administration of alfaxalone on the righting reflex and tactile stimulus response of common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis).

To determine the intracoelemic (ICe) dose of alfaxalone required to induce loss of righting reflex (LRR) in garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) and to evaluate the tactile stimulus response in unanesthetized and alfaxalone-anesthetized snakes. 8 healthy mature garter snakes. During the first of 3 phases, snakes received each of 3 doses (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) of alfaxalone, ICe, with a 2-week washout period between treatments. Times to LRR and return of righting reflex were determined after each dose. During phase 2, unanesthetized snakes underwent tactile stimulation testing with Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments once daily for 3 consecutive days to determine the baseline tactile pressure required to elicit purposeful movement. During phase 3, snakes were anesthetized with alfaxalone (30 mg/kg, ICe), and the tactile pressure required to induce purposeful movement was assessed at predetermined times after LRR. Intracoelomic administration of alfaxalone at doses of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg induced LRR in 0, 5, and 8 snakes, respectively. For snakes with LRR, median time to LRR following the 30-mg/kg dose (3.8 minutes) was significantly shorter than that following the 20-mg/kg dose (8.3 minutes); median time to return of righting reflex did not differ between the 2 doses. Mean ± SD tactile pressure that resulted in purposeful movement in unanesthetized snakes was 16.9 ± 14.3 g. When snakes were anesthetized, the mean tactile pressure that resulted in purposeful movement was significantly increased from baseline at 10, 20, and 30 minutes after LRR. Results suggested ICe administration of alfaxalone might be effective for anesthetizing garter snakes.

Effects of early nutritional stress on physiology, life histories and their trade-offs in a model ectothermic vertebrate.

Early-life experiences can have far-reaching consequences for phenotypes into adulthood. The effect of early-life experiences on fitness, particularly under adverse conditions, is mediated by resource allocation to particular life-history traits. Reptiles exhibit great variation in life histories (e.g. indeterminate growth), thus selective pressures often mitigate the effects of early-life stress, particularly on growth and maturation. We examined the effects of early-life food restriction on growth, adult body size, physiology and reproduction in the checkered garter snake. Animals were placed on one of two early-life diet treatments: normal diet (approximating ad libitum feeding) or low diet (restricted to 20% of body mass in food weekly). At 15 weeks of age, low-diet animals were switched to the normal-diet treatment. Individuals fed a restricted diet showed reduced growth rates, depressed immunocompetence and a heightened glucocorticoid response. Once food restriction was lifted, animals experiencing nutritional stress early in life (low diet) caught up with the normal-diet group by increasing their growth, and were able to recover from the negative effects of nutritional stress on immune function and physiology. Growth restriction and the subsequent allocation of resources into increasing growth rates, however, had a negative effect on fitness. Mating success was reduced in low-diet males, while low-diet females gave birth to smaller offspring. In addition, although not a direct goal of our study, we found a sex-specific effect of early-life nutritional stress on median age of survival. Our study demonstrates both immediate and long-term effects of nutritional stress on physiology and growth, reproduction, and trade-offs among them.

Act Natural, and: Aurelia Plath Confesses, and: The Last Resort, and: Stood Up, and: Woman in the Moon

Act Natural, and: Aurelia Plath Confesses, and: The Last Resort, and: Stood Up, and: Woman in the Moon Lisa Mullenneaux (bio) Act Natural you said behind those cat-eye sunglassesyou wore, that night with hot pink shorts,and me in Capri pants and a blousetied at the midriff Jean Seberg–styleand weren't you breathless when I stuck outmy thumb and the testosteronefueled,cream-and-green Impala slowed to offer us a lift? Where were we headed, the townies askedand we didn't know, but you said smoothly"Wherever we can get a beer." Big laughs.I'd never tasted it, and I was two years older.Years later you told me you were sneaking drinksbefore school, a 15-year-old lush. The Chicken Box was everything Main StreetNantucket wasn't. We were never cardedand when the riot broke out, you found usa ride with a sailor on a Harley. We got luckyand knew it, so it was back to Omar Sharifand Paul Newman at the buck-a-night Dreamland,always on the lookout for the cream-and-greenImpala on the sandy bike trips home. [End Page 116] Aurelia Plath Confesses After we lost her, I wanted her back—beforeher refusal to be born kept us in suspenseat Mass Memorial. Was she ever ready? Warren heard a groan while the policewere out looking. We found her eating dirt,my child eating her way to China. Otto never held her though she had eyesfor no one else, sneaking into his library, hidingbeneath his desk, a mole tunneling its way among the festschrifts, boxes of manuscriptmy hands had typed. Pinwheel, spin, somersault—anything to get attention. The last time I saw her at Court Green I coulddo nothing right, say nothing right, her Devon farmprimed and ready for the pages of Mademoiselle. I returned to Wellesley, to Tupperware and moonshots,Lawrence Welk's bubble machine, but I fumed:How can she disown me? Was I ever her mother? That was before I became "the mother," a witchwho's baked into gingerbread.I wanted a different ending: I want her back. [End Page 117] The Last Resort Long before Mr. Sammi's arson claimed the clapboardcabins, Mi Casa was Club Med with field mice.Leggy paralegals with the souls of nuns, ex-halfbacksin broker training, someone's sister with fake id pouredfrom the "bozo buses" into a nimbus of party lightsdraped on white pine branches. They shed their city skinsin eucalyptus-scented Jacuzzis with beakersof Boone's Farm or in the pond where algae hidthe poppers. Jack Daniels laid to rest among the minnows. Some tented on Blackberry Hill and wokewhen horned owls called; some danced all nightto "Don't Go Breaking My Heart," the air staticwith imploding lust. In the tall grass, bobcats sulkedyellow-eyed and dreamed of snowfields. By Sundayscorch marks left guests longing for the tediumof their o≈ces, a pastrami sandwich, a hot shower. Weekday bed linens hung to dry, the cleaning crewsipped dregs of the bacchanal. Now the charred beamsfeed on nightshade. Garter snakes sun on the outcropsin a mindless glaze, stray cats nurse their litters in cracksof the stone foundation. Sometimes a former hedonistreturns for a glimpse of '70s folly, stardust meltedto a vitreous pool, gazes at the cratered tennis court,the pit-holed barbeque, and leaves with muddy shoes. [End Page 118] Stood Up as the bride slips outof the silk organza with lace sleevesshe will insist her dazed motherdonate to Goodwill,so I trade the black beadsthat match the heels,the ring, garnet earringssatin blouse and dress slacksfor a frayed terry cloth robeand slippers. The cell phoneI've been staring at for an hourretains its hermetic void.I switch it off and the nightis perhaps not lostbut found. I stroke the leavesof a new book as ifI've just discovered print. Woman in the Moon They say your mouth is a grieving...