Garo Tribe Research Articles

Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis of Technological Gap between Tribal Pineapple Growers of Meghalaya, India

The varied agro-climatic condition of Meghalaya favours cultivation of different horticultural crops, particularly different fruit crops, and pineapple is the most notable of them. The present study was conducted on 200 tribal pineapple growers of Meghalaya in the North Eastern Himalayan region of India in the year 2017-2018. The article highlighted the technological gap among pineapple growers with special emphasis on the differences in agro-economic, socio-psychological and extension-communication characteristics between the Khasi and the Garo tribes of Meghalaya in the north-eastern Himalayan region of India. The average level of the technological gap of Garo farmers (61.78%) was slightly higher than that of Khasi farmers (57.85%). The Mann-Whitney U test reported that the mean scores of the technological gap for the farmers of West Garo Hills and Ri Bhoi were indicating a significant difference in the technological gap between the farmers of these two tribes. The study suggested the need to understand the differential characteristics of these tribes and to introduce location-specific technologies to minimize the technological gap and increase pineapple production in these tribal areas.

Traditional oral healthcare practices followed by the Garo tribe of West Garo Hills District, Meghalaya

Ethnomedicinal study of therapeutic healing methods of oral diseases was conducted during 2016-19 in the West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, India. Recurrent field trips in and around different parts of West Garo Hills lead to the five most knowledgeable and available THPs (Traditional health practitioners) from whom valuable information was elicited. A pre-tested interview schedule was used to gather information from them. Information like vernacular names, common names, scientific names, family, habit, habitat, plant parts used and a comprehensive procedure for preparation of the medicines was recorded. After obtaining detailed information regarding the indigenous wild medicinal plants used wholly for healing oral diseases, an assessment was made that, 14 plant species belonging to 12 different families were found to heal the dreadful and painful disease. Out of the 14 plants having medicinal value, the most important plants used were Curcuma longa L., Piper nigrum L., Piper longum L. and Mimosa pudica L., etc. These 14 medicinal plant species are comprised of trees (five), shrubs (three), herbs (three), vines (two) and grass (one). Among the plant parts used, the leaves were the most primarily used plant part, followed by root and rhizome. The plants were either used alone or in combination with other species. The administration of these herbal medicines was mostly done orally in the form of a juice/decoction. In some cases, the juice was also used to rinse the mouth. These medicinal plants were mostly collected from nearby forests, local markets and kitchen gardens. The present paper aims for the documentation of the ever-diminishing information on the wisdom and knowledge of the Garo THPs on use of various herbs in the traditional oral healthcare system and the detailed description of the preparation and treatment procedure that were practiced by the Garo THPs in the West Garo Hills of Meghalaya.

Household Food Insecurity and the Nutritional Status of Children Aged 6–59 Months: Insights from Rural Indigenous Garo Tribes of Meghalaya, India

Household Food Insecurity and the Nutritional Status of Children Aged 6–59 Months: Insights from Rural Indigenous Garo Tribes of Meghalaya, India

Ethnic preparation of Chubitchi, an alcoholic beverage of the Garo tribe of Meghalaya: a sociocultural analysis

The Garo community living in Meghalaya has always relied on fermented rice liquor known as Chubitchi as a main beverage in their everyday life. Chubitchi is celebrated by the Garos during feasts and ceremonies. The indigenous populations of North-East India prepare alcoholic beverage in their traditional ways, almost always using rice as the base for those drinks. Chubitchi is a popular traditional alcoholic beverage prepared by the Garo tribe of Meghalaya, India. It is consumed during festive occasions such as Wangala (harvest festival), Do.si Do.doka (wedding festivities) and religious rituals, and also served as refreshments for weary field labourers and guests. It has a great significance in the social and cultural life of the Garos. This paper deals with the traditional preparation of Chubitchi by the Garo tribe, which is a vital part of their culture, and also examines the sociocultural significance of the beverage.

Ethnobotanical study on wild edible fruits, spices and aquatic plants traditionally used by the Garo tribe of Meghalaya

An ethnobotanical study was carried out in the West Garo Hills of Meghalaya, India during 2015-2017 to identify and document the wild edible fruits, spices and aquatic plants used by the Garo tribe for their nutraceutical properties. The study area is situated between 26 o and 25 o 20’North latitude and 90 o 30’ to 89 o 40’ East longitude. This area is predominantly inhabited by the Garo tribe following a matrilineal society. In the present study 43 wild edible fruit species belonging to 25 families were recorded which were found to be ethnobotanically important among the Garo tribe. Of these wild edible fruits, 36 species were trees followed by the 5 shrubs and 2 creepers/climbers. It was also observed that 19 species of wild edible plants belonging to 9 families were used by tribal population as spices to enrich their food. Most of the spice plants used by the Garo tribe belong to Zingiberaceae and Rutaceae family. They were grouped under herbs (10 species), shrubs (6 species), trees (2 species) and creepers (1 species). Rhizomes, leaves and flowers/inflorescence were commonly used plant parts. Among the aquatic plants only 5 species were used by the Garo tribe as vegetable, spices and medicines.

Study on traditional methods of treating bronchial asthma by the Garo tribe of north-east India

Study on traditional methods of treating bronchial asthma by the Garo tribe of north-east India

Women, Nature and Culture: An Ecofeminist Reading of the Matrilineal Culture of the Khasis, Jaintia and Garo Tribes of Meghalaya

Northeast India, the land of original inhabitants, follows a unique and fascinating culture and tradition as its inhabitants are closely attached to nature. Northeast India is one of those few places in the world, where matrilineal culture is still practiced. In Meghalaya, one of the northeastern states, the practice of matrilineality has been in existence for almost 2000 years among a few tribes. Khasi, Jaintia and Garo, the earliest ethnic communities of Meghalaya appear to be homogenous ones, as the youngest daughter becomes the custodian of the ancestral prospects. This practice where the womenfolk become the custodians of the cultural and natural artifacts has strong parallels in the theory of ecofeminism. By employing ecofeministic perspective to read the matrilineal culture of the tribes, the paper aims to make a parallel study on the ethnic women’s affinity towards nature. Ecofeminism celebrates the robust connect between women and nature and asserts that women serve as the advocates for nature rather than men. The paper, therefore, aims to investigate ecofeministic elements among the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo tribes of Meghalaya and tries to express an ecofeministic view concerning family, marriage, religion, and food culture of the Meghalaya tribes.

Reproductive health status of women in the matrilineal tribes of Meghalaya: a field-based quantitative study

Background: Reproductive health of the tribal women in India is less studied and the present study attempts to fill the gap by understanding the reproductive health of women in the matrilineal tribes in Meghalaya. The objective of the study was to study the reproductive health status of tribal women.Methods: A field-based quantitative study was conducted among randomly chosen 900 tribal women in their reproductive age from the 142 villages selected randomly across 15 PHCs functional in five districts. We used a semi-structured validated questionnaire consisting of the socio-demographic profile, reproductive health status, blood pressure and haemoglobin level.Results: Median age of the 900 respondents was 28.9 years, 83% had primary education and 82% got married between 13-18 years. Over 96% lived with their spouse, and 80% had a monthly income ≤Rs. 5000. Their mean age at menarche was 14.3 years, 10% reported menstrual issues: stomach ache, back pain and vomiting. Though 58% planned their pregnancy, 77% had their first pregnancy before 18 years, and 10.3% of respondents had three deliveries within a four-year period. 76% had poor self-rated health, 83% had abnormal blood pressure and 95% reported anaemia. Out of 81 deaths, 69% were infants and 33.3% did not avail medical service from PHC.Conclusions: Reproductive health risks, anaemia and abnormal blood pressure were found among women in Garo tribes. Mitigating the ill effects of reproductive health issues through indigenous interventions as part of the NRHM program is needed.

The role of Garo tribes of Meghalaya (India) in the conservation and management of medicinal plants diversity used in treating livestock diseases

The Garo tribe of Meghalaya, India have rich local health traditions and large numbers of traditional healers have been practicing herbal medicines for many years. The present study aims at quantifying the plant species used for ethno-veterinary purposes and to identify their conservation status. Out of 90 informants 22 were traditional healers and 68 were farmers. A total of 75 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species belonging to 71 genera and 49 families were documented and identified for treating 24 different livestock ailment. Most of the medicinal plants (83%) were collected from the wild and leaves were the most frequently used (58%) parts for formulation of drugs; oral application is most frequently employed (56%), followed by the dermal application which accounts for 31%. The medicinal plants collected are mostly trees (31%), followed by herbs (25%). The study indicates that some species are rare or endangered and their use is therefore unsustainable. The strategies for effective conservation of endangered medicinal plant are discussed here.

Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the Garo community of two villages in western Assam, India

The present study documents the use of medicinal plants by the Garo tribe of Betagaon-Bamunpara (BB) and Nigamghola (NG) villages of western Assam in the northeastern region of India. Comparisons of ethnomedicinal practices in BB and NG between themselves as well as with the other Garo communities of the region and in Bangladesh have also been made. The methodology comprised interviews and focal group discussions with traditional healers and knowledgeable elderly persons. Plants were collected from wild habitats and home gardens with the help of local practitioners and identified. A total of 70 plants belonging to 44 genera and 40 families were used in 38 ethnomedicinal formulations (mono, di and polyherbal) for curing 25 ailments. The medicinal uses of 40 species recorded in the present study appear to be new records for the Garos. Herb was the dominant life form used and leaf the most commonly used plant part for treating different ailments. Sorensen Similarity Index for plant species between BB and NG was found to be 0.25. The highest number of plants was used for the treatment of pneumonia, followed by those used to cure rheumatic pain, epilepsy and jaundice. The use of di- and poly-herbal formulations, and blending with non-herbal materials might have resulted from the interactions between the Garo and the Ayurveda practitioners of this area that once belonged to the Koch kingdom and later the Princely State of Bijni. The study reveals the rich knowledge in traditional medicine that the Garos of these two villages possess.

Gender and nature in the matrilineal society of Meghalaya, India: Searching for ecofeminist perspectives

ABSTRACTThe ecofeminist perspective of the matrilineal society of Meghalaya, India, is intriguing in that it has descent through mother, is matrilocal and daughters inherit parental property, but the different genders possibly do not agree about the relationship between women and nature. Ecofeminism has not yet been studied in a matrilineal society. The purpose of the study was to investigate qualitatively the students' ecofeminist perspectives among the Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo tribes of Meghalaya, through students who were studying in North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India. The sample consisted of 33 students purposefully selected to complete an open questionnaire and unstructured interviews. The responses showed that the women of this matrilineal society seem to be more ecofeminist compared with the men. However only a minority of both male and female expressed an ecofeminist worldview with respect to nature and development indicating that this concept is at early stage of development.

Surveillance of Health Caring Practices and Nutritional Status Among Adolescent Girls at Madhupur Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

A longitudinal surveillance study was carried out among the tribal (<i>Garo Tribe</i>) and non-tribal adolescent girls at a renowned hill tracts (Madhupur) in Bangladesh. A total number of 110 adolescent girls were collected among them fifty percent were tribal and another was non- tribal general population. In baseline survey, overweight found 7.3% in non-tribal adolescent girls whereas in tribal girls it was 1.8% and 70.9% non-tribal and 58.2% tribal adolescent girls were normal body weight at baseline survey. The nutritional status was increased in subsequent surveys. Hygienic sanitary napkin was used only 36.4% tribal adolescents and 70.9% non-tribal adolescent girls at baseline survey which was positively increased in 2^nd and 3^rd follow-up surveys. But the consciousness about proper sanitary practices was little increased in both groups is a bad indicator of personal hygiene knowledge. However, the knowledge about food misconception was positively deviates in both groups after second and third time monitoring. Thus it can be postulate that the repeated survey and monitoring can influence the positive variations of the nutritional knowledge, health care behavior and positive health outcomes towards normal BMI-for-age in both groups due to sharing and mix-up nutrition education knowledge.

In vitro membrane stabilizing, thrombolytic and antioxidant potentials of Drynaria quercifolia L., a remedial plant of the Garo tribal people of Bangladesh.

BackgroundDrynaria quercifolia L. (Family- Polypodiaceae) is a fern grows in Bangladesh used in traditional healing by the Garo tribe of Mymensingh district. In the current study, rhizomes and fertile foliage fronds of this plant have been investigated comprehensively to assess their in vitro membrane stabilizing, thrombolytic and antioxidant properties.MethodsRhizomes and fertile foliage fronds of D. quercifolia were collected, dried, powdered and extracted with methanol. Later on, crude methanol extracts of the plant parts were fractionated into petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and aqueous soluble fractions. The extractives were then subjected to membrane stabilizing, thrombolytic and antioxidant assays.ResultsIn membrane stabilizing assay, crude methanol extracts of rhizomes and fertile foliage fronds and their petroleum ether fractions were found to be very effective for stabilizing erythrocyte membrane in hypotonic solution. In case of thrombolytic study, crude methanol extract of rhizomes and its aqueous fraction exhibited noticeable clot lysis. However, in antioxidant assays, crude methanol extracts of the tested plant parts and their aqueous fractions exhibited potent 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydrogen peroxide and 2, 2’-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activity. Besides, these extractives also displayed substantial ferric reducing potential in ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. Crude methanol extracts of the plant parts and their aqueous fractions were also found rich in phenolics.ConclusionThis study demonstrates the medicinal potentials of D. quercifolia and justifies the local uses of it by the Garo tribal people of Bangladesh for multiple disease management.

Underutilized and unexploited fruits of Indo-Burma hot spot, Meghalaya, north-east India: ethno-medicinal evaluation, socio-economic importance and conservation strategies

An attempt has been made during 2012–2014 at to enumerate the ethno-medicinal evaluation and socio-economic importance of underutilized and unexploited fruits among the Garo tribe of west Garo hills district, Meghalaya, north-east India. The study was based on extensive field surveys, sample collection and interviews with the traditional healers as well as old aged men and women and survey in rural markets regarding their market demand, price and season of availability. Altogether 66 underutilized and unexploited fruits belonging to 34 families have been enumerated in this paper. The documented fruits were mostly used by the rural people to cure a number of ailments. In addition, these fruits also have socio-economic importance in the rural life of the tribal people like use as constructional timbers, firewood, charcoal, fodder, making dye, yielding oil and a number of value added products. Although, these fruits play an important role in the social and cultural life of Garo people, but these valuable species have been vanishing at very faster rate due to lack of proper documentation. Therefore, the claimed therapeutic values of these species are to be critically studied to establish their safety and effectiveness and both in situ and ex situ conservation measures should be immediately undertaken to safeguard the valuable indigenous rural resources of the world.

Quality Evaluation of Honey from Stingless Bee (Trigona sp) Reared by Garo Tribes in West Garo Hills of Meghalaya

The study was designed to evaluate nutrient content of honey samples of Trigona sp. obtained from beekeepers of West Garo Hills, Meghalaya of Northeast India. Twenty samples were collected for evaluation their quality parameters moisture, pH, acidity, ash, Hydroxy Methyl Furfural (HMF), Water insoluble solid, TSS, and conductivity. The result revealed that locally produced honey had moisture, ash, acid, and pH content ranging from 18.8–19.3 per cent, 0.003–0.005 per cent, 0.87–1.30 per cent and 4.43–4.49 at 21o C, respectively, which was within the standard limits. Similarly, TSS content of locally produced honey ranged between 76.8–76.9 per cent. The water insoluble materials content of the honey samples were1.97–2.40 per cent while the conductivity was 3.21–3.22 μS/cm for the tested samples of locally produced honey. All the samples were found to be within the acceptable range of national as well as standards for all of the tested parameters.

A Survey of Ethnomedicinal Plants Utilized by the Indigenous People of Garo Hills with Special Reference to the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (Meghalaya), India

The present study documented pharmaceutically important plant resources used in primary health care of ethnic Garo tribes from Eastern Himalayas (Nokrek Biosphere Reserve [NBR], India). In order to document information on medicinal plants and to maximize the collection of indigenous knowledge of Garo tribes, 12 traditional healers were identified using the Participatory Rapid Appraisal approach. Data were collected through open-end interviews with traditional healers, between 2007 and 2011. A total of 157 plant species representing 134 genera and 81 families were found to be commonly used in the treatment of 67 health-problems. More than one-fourth of the plant species were used in the treatment of cough, flu, and cold, which are prevalent ailments in the study area. The leaves, root, rhizome, and tuber were the most commonly used plant parts while decoction was the most common method of drug preparation.

Modern pollen deposition in relation to vegetation and climate of Balpakram valley, Meghalaya, northeast India: Implications for Indo-Burma palaeoecological contexts

Balpakram valley, the sacred grove of the Garo tribe in Meghalaya, is world famous for its tropical unique biodiversity, physiography, seismically active zone, and proximity to Cherrapunjee. The area was not previously approached for palynological study due to its remoteness, impenetrable forest and wildlife. A modern pollen database of 120 surface samples from Balpakram valley indicates a good correlation of modern pollen, extant vegetation, and climate. Five pollen zones (forest types) have been recorded based on the regional pollen marker taxa corresponding to the ratio of evergreen and deciduous forest elements (>30% signifies the forest type). The present vegetation is similar to the Indo-Burmese vegetation except for a unique Duabanga–Schima–Nepenthes assemblage due to high monsoonal activity with a strong perennial river and streamlet system. The evergreen woody taxa in abundance along with Dendropthoe, Piperaceae and Impatiens in the assemblage are significant and suggestive of dense forest with high monsoonal activity. The abundance of Poaceae along with an Artemisia–Chenopodiaceae assemblage shows a savanna forest type, attributed to seasonal dryness and a poor water system in a restricted region. The absence of Dipterocarpaceae pollen, a characteristic taxon of the Indo-Malayan forest, is indicative of a regional effect. The poor representation of bamboo pollen may be attributed due to low pollen production (one-time flowering) and preservation. Pollen of Nepenthes khasiana in sediment signifies high precipitation, and is also indicative of this high pollen producer with good preservation status. No medicinal plants, specifically Costus speciosus and Swertia chirata, are observed despite their luxuriant growth in the region, which may be due to poor pollen production. Abundance of Cyathea (tree fern) along with Lycopodium and Pyrrosia signifies high rainfall and humid climate. The presence of coprophilous fungi including Sordaria and Cercophora is indicative of wildlife habitation in the area. The unique forest vegetation of Balpakram valley is mainly controlled by annual precipitation with perennial rivers and streamlets, moisture availability, and altitudinal variation in the region. This study will be helpful to generate palaeoecological data for surrounding ecozones including eastern Himalaya and Indo-Malayan regions, to trace migratory routes for flora and fauna in the Indo-Burma ranges.

Incidence of haemoglobin E and α-thalassaemia mutations and their interaction among the tribal populations of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in North Eastern India

The study provides an account of the incidence of Haemoglobin E and α -thalassaemia mutations and interactions between these globin gene mutations with the help of haematological data analysis and molecular characterization among the tribes from North East India. The study deals with a large cohort of four hundred and thirteen tribal population consisting of 234 cases from Assam and 179 cases from Arunachal Pradesh, respectively. These cases were obtained during a random screening programme organized by Ramakrishna Mission (RKM) Seva Pratisthan, Kolkata in collaboration with RKM’s North East Ashram for tribal populations of Dibrugarh in Assam and Itanagar in Arunachal Pradesh. These subjects from tribal populations attended the camp for routine clinical and hematological investigations. Clinical and haematological data were assessed in all 413 cases. Haemoglobin E , codon 26 (G → A ) was found to be the most prevalent mutation in the population of Dibrugarh : 48 % (113/234) in Assam and Itanagar : 16 % (29/179) in Arunachal Pradesh. Eighty cases from Assam and thirty-two cases from Arunachal Pradesh were selected for molecular study of α thalassaemia mutations based on Hb <11 g/dl , MCV <78 fl and MCH <28 pg. While investigating α-thalassaemia, mutations we found a striking : 11 % (9/80) with two most common deletional α – thalassaemia mutations in a group of tribes consisting of mainly Ahom, Garo, Munda and unknown tribes in Assam. The interaction of α thalassaemia with homozygous HbE (HbE/HbE) was found in 4 Ahom and 1 unknown tribe. No such interaction was found among the Garo and other tribes. In Arunachal Pradesh−21.87 % (7/32) of the tribes were shown to have α globin gene defect but no interaction of α- thalassaemia mutations with Haemoglobin E has been noted there. This is the first report of the study of the two α-globin gene deletion mutations (−3.7 α and −4.2 α) and their interaction with Hb E among these tribes. It was found that presence of Hb E alone did not cause any significant clinical symptoms among the tribes of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and its interaction with −3.7 and /or −4.2 alpha thalassaemia mutations did not have any significant effect on their clinical and hematological picture. The presence of several globin gene abnormalities in the tribes of North East India emphasizes high frequencies of thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies in these regions and needs serious attention to population studies, carrier identification and counselling to reduce the genetic burden among these tribes.

Medicinal plants used for treatment of diabetes by the marakh sect of the Garo tribe living in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh

Diabetes mellitus is an endocrinological disorder arising from insulin deficiency or due to ineffectiveness of the insulin produced by the body. This results in high blood glucose and with time, to neurological, cardiovascular, retinal and renal complications. It is a debilitating disease and affects the population of every country of the world. Around 200 million people of the world suffer from this disease and this figure is projected to rise to 300 million in the coming years. The disease cannot be cured with allopathic medicine as the drugs used do not restore normal glucose homeostasis and moreover have side-effects. On the other hand, traditional medicinal practitioners of various countries claim to cure diabetes or at least alleviate the major symptoms and progression of this disease through administration of medicinal plants. The Garos are an indigenous community of Bangladesh, who still follow their traditional medicinal practices. Their traditional medicinal formulations contain a number of plants, which they claim to be active antidiabetic agents. Since observation of indigenous practices have led to discovery of many modern drugs, it was the objective of the present study to conduct a survey among the Marakh sect of the Garos residing in Mymensingh district of Bangladesh to find out the medicinal plants that they use for treatment of diabetes. It was found that the tribal practitioners of the Marakh sect of the Garos use twelve medicinal plants for treatment of diabetes. These plants were Lannea coromandelica, Alstonia scholaris, Catharanthus roseus, Enhydra fluctuans, Terminalia chebula, Coccinia grandis, Momordica charantia, Cuscuta reflexa, Phyllanthus emblica, Syzygium aqueum, Drynaria quercifolia, and Clerodendrum viscosum. A review of the scientific literature demonstrated that almost all the plants used by the Garo tribal practitioners have reported antidiabetic and/or antioxidant properties and have enormous potential for possible development of new and efficacious antidiabetic drugs.

Comparison of ABO and Rh-D Blood Group Systems between the Garo Tribal People of Mymensingh and General People of Dhaka City

Background: The distribution pattern of ABO and Rh-D blood group in our country including the tribal people is not fully established as elaborated and large scale studies have not been carried out on it. Therefore this study was designed to observe the distribution pattern of ABO and Rh-D blood groups among the Garo tribes of Mymensingh and general people of Dhaka city. Objectives: To determine and to compare the distribution pattern of ABO and Rh-D blood groups among the Garo tribal people of Mymensingh and general people of Dhaka city and to compare this distribution between this two groups. Materials and Methods: This observational study was conducted in the Department of Physiology, Dhaka Medical College, Dhaka from July 2008 to June 2009. After proper ethical consideration total 900 Garo people of Mymensingh and 784 general people of Dhaka city were included in this study. The Garo localities and the general people of Dhaka city were selected by systematic random sampling. ABO and Rh-D blood groups were determined by the antigen antibody agglutination test of slide method. Chi square statistical analyses were done to compare the results of ABO blood group systems between the Garo people and general people of Dhaka city. Results: This study revealed that there are significant variations in the distribution of ABO and Rh-D blood groups between the Garo tribal people of Mymensingh and the general people of Dhaka city. In this study it was observed that blood group ‘A’ was apparently predominant in Garo population, while blood group ‘B’ was predominant in general population (p&lt;0.001), blood group ‘AB’ and ‘O’ were almost similar in both groups. Rh typing of the participants reveals that majorities of both groups were Rh positive. Rh negative persons are rare in both populations, but it is extremely rare in the Garo population (0.9%). Conclusion: From the findings of the present study it can be concluded that distribution of ABO and Rh-D blood groups varies between the Garo tribal people and the general people of Dhaka city. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jemc.v1i1.11137J Enam Med Col 2011; 1(1): 31-35