Gardens In China Research Articles

Using Structural Equation Modeling to Examine Pathways Between Environmental Characteristics and Perceived Restorativeness on Public Rooftop Gardens in China.

As a kind of informal green space more closely related to the built environment, public rooftop gardens (PRGs) are novel green open space and important salutogenic resource for urban residents. It is one of the most easily accessible method for urban residents to be in contact with outdoor or natural elements from the context of high-altitude living. Given its potential health benefits to city dwellers, existing empirical studies are heavily focused on immediate recovery through visually accessing PRGs (through windows), neglecting the possibility of using PRGs physically as a place of interaction. This paper hypothesizes usage patterns will mediate the associations between the environmental characteristics of PRG and users' restoration. This is done through inputting data from 12 typical samples of PRG in Chengdu, China into structural equation model (SEM). Combining the concept of Perceived Sensory Dimensions (PSD) and Perceived Restorativeness Scales (PRS) with the usage patterns of the above samples, this study aims to examine the correlation of environmental characteristics, usage pattern and restoration, in which identify their relative importance in the context of PRGs. Through serials of numerical tests on the model, the study shows that out of the 20 theoretical pathways constructed by the environmental characteristics (x)–usage patterns (m)–restorative effect (y), only 14 forms a significant correlation. In addition, out of all PSDs, social, serene, refuge, space and nature dimensions are induced into restorative effects through four patterns of use: retreat, nature touch, interpersonal interaction and family-bonding activities. The findings also show that social and family-bonding are the most influential independent and mediating variables respectively in achieving restorative effects in the PRG. This study reveals important findings about how usage patterns mediate the association between the PSD and PRS of users. And it also has generated practical implications on how we can design public rooftop gardens from the perspective of restoration, which could potentially be the key to the future survival and development of PRGs in urban environments.

Species diversity, distribution and composition of polypores occurring in botanical gardens in China

Species diversity, distribution and composition of polypores occurring in botanical gardens in China

Site selection of national botanic gardens of China and <i>ex-situ</i> conservation

Site selection of national botanic gardens of China and <i>ex-situ</i> conservation

First Report of Powdery Mildew Caused by Podosphaera xanthii on Cuphea hyssopifolia (Lythraceae) in Mainland China.

Cuphea hyssopifolia (Mexican heather) is a popular evergreen perennial shrub used for ornamental and medicinal purposes. Due to its high ornamental value, it is often used as a ground cover in parks and gardens in China. During February and March 2019 & 2020, powdery mildew was observed on C. hyssopifolia in the districts of Minhou and Jinshan of Fuzhou, China. Disease incidence was 70% but of low severity with only a few older leaves showing yellowing and wilting. Sparse irregular patches of white superficial powdery mildew observed on both sides of mature and young leaves. The powdery mildew fungal appressoria that occurred on epigenous hyphae, were indistinct to nipple-shaped, hyaline, and smooth. Conidiophores were erect, smooth, 80 to 210 × 10 to 12 µm, and produced two to eight crenate-shaped conidia in chains. Foot-cells of conidiophores were straight, cylindric, and 30 to 65 × 10 to12 µm. Conidia were hyaline, smooth, ellipsoid-ovoid to barrel-shaped, 25 to 38 × 16 to 20 µm with distinct fibrosin bodies. Germ tubes were simple to forked and produced from the lateral position of the germinating conidia. No chasmothecia were observed on the surface of infected leaves. Based on the morphology of the imperfect state, the powdery mildew fungus was identified as Podosphaera xanthii (Castagne) U. Braun & N. Shishkoff (Braun and Cook 2012). To confirm fungal identification, total DNA was extracted (Mukhtar et al., 2018) directly from epiphytic mycelia on infected leaves collected from both districts. Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the partial large subunit (LSU) rDNA were amplified using primers ITS1/ITS4 and LSU1/LSU2 (Scholin et al. 1994, White et al. 1990), respectively. The sequences were deposited in GenBank (ITS: MW692364, MW692365; LSU: MW699924, MW699925). The ITS and LSU sequences were 99 to 100 % identical to those of P. xanthii in GenBank, (ITS: MT568609, MT472035, MT250855, and AB462800; LSU: AB936276, JX896687, AB936277, and AB936274). Koch's postulates were completed by gently pressing diseased leaves onto leaves of five healthy potted C. hyssopifolia plants that were held in a greenhouse at 24 to 30°C without humidity control. Five non-inoculated plants served as controls. Inoculated plants developed symptoms after 6 to 10 days, whereas the controls remained symptomless. The morphology of the fungus on the inoculated leaves was identical to that observed on the originally diseased leaves. Previously, Podosphaera sp. has been reported on C. rosea in the United Kingdom (Beales & Cook 2008) and P. xanthii on C. hyssopifolia in Taiwan (Yeh et al. 2021). To our knowledge, this is the first report of powdery mildew caused by P. xanthii on C. hyssopifolia in mainland China. Our field observations suggest that the P. xanthii infections would be a potential threat to the health of C. hyssopifolia in China.

Intelligent Recognition Method of Decorative Openwork Windows with Sustainable Application for Suzhou Traditional Private Gardens in China

Decorative openwork windows (DO-Ws) in Suzhou traditional private gardens play a vital role in Chinese traditional garden art. Due to the delicate and elegant patterns, as well as their rich cultural meaning, DO-Ws have quite high protection and utilization value. In this study, we firstly visited 15 extant traditional gardens in Suzhou and took almost 3000 photos to establish the DO-W datasets. Then, we present an effective visual recognition method named CSV-Net to classify different DO-Ws’ patterns in Suzhou traditional gardens. On the basis of the backbone module of the cross stage partial network optimized with the Soft-VLAD architecture, the proposed CSV-Net achieves a preferable representation ability for distinguishing different DO-Ws in practical scenes. The comparative experimental results show that the CSV-Net model achieves a good balance between its performance, robustness and complexity for identifying DO-Ws, also having further potential for sustainable application in traditional gardens. Moreover, the Canglang Pavilion and the Humble Administrator’s Garden were selected as the cases to analyze the relation between identifying DO-W types and their locations in intelligent approaches, which further reveals the design rules of the sustainable culture contained in Chinese traditional gardens. This work ultimately promotes the sustainable application of artificial intelligence technology in the field of garden design and inheritance of the garden art.

Population Genetics of the Black Citrus Aphid Aphis aurantii (Hemiptera, Aphididae) in China

The black citrus aphid, Aphis aurantiiBoyer de Fonscolombe, 1841, is one of the most destructive pests in commercial tea plantations and gardens in China. In this study, we investigated the population genetic structure of A. aurantii based on the concatenated sequences of two mitochondrial genes, cytochrome c oxidase I (cox1) and cytochrome b (cytb). A total of 166 haplotypes were identified from 177 individuals collected at 11 locations in China. The whole Chinese A. aurantii population showed a low nucleotide diversity (0.00968) and a high population diversity (haplotype diversity; 0.9991). The haplotypes of the 11 local populations were widely distributed in the neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree and haplotype network diagram, whereas no apparent lineages were detected. Gene flow analysis showed gene exchanges among local populations. The pairwise Fst values revealed a certain amount of genetic difference among local populations. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) reflected genetic differences both within and among populations. The isolation by distance (IBD) analysis revealed a high positive correlation between the geographic distance and genetic distance of the different populations. Neutral test and mismatch distribution suggested that A. aurantii may have experienced recent population expansion events.

Study on Russian Botanical Garden construction characteristics – on the example of Russia Northern-West botanical gardens

Botanical garden is an important symbol of modern urban civilization. The botanical garden not only protects the ecological environment, but also increases the urban green space area and improves the urban environment and quality of life. This paper analyses and summarizes the construction of 12 botanical gardens of the northwest European part of Russia from three aspects: regional, cultural and plant’s characteristics. What’s more, analysing its spatial layout, concludes that it is mainly affected by the existing natural characteristics and cultural diversity. The purpose of this study is to provide reference for the development and construction of botanical garden in China.

Research on the Development Status and Strategy of Productive Rooftop Gardens on Commercial Complexes

The introduction of productive gardens on public building roofs is an active way to use urban idle space. It has ecological, economic, and social values and helps alleviate many urban problems caused by the rapid advancement of land urbanization. This paper takes the productive rooftop garden of an urban commercial complex as an example, and assesses its development status based on methods including ArcGIS, field research, and questionnaire interviews, combined with the overall aspects of the country and key case analysis. The results indicate several key aspects of the current status of such gardens in China. (1) As affected by natural and social factors, the current spatial distribution of productive rooftop gardens of commercial complexes in Chinese mainland is uneven, with 84.21% located in the southeast coast and the Sichuan region. (2) The operation and development of this type of productive landscape is in good shape. The number of rooftop gardens has continued to increase since 2013, and the scale is generally greater. Currently, the business model which combines nature education and parent-child amusement experience activities is the most stable. (3) Cases in good operating condition tend to have relatively related characteristics in layouts, traffic functions, landscape elements, and space design. (4) Questionnaire interviews show that citizens are highly willing to participate in rooftop productive landscapes, while operators still experience challenges in policies, funds, and planting knowledge in practice. This paper analyses the existing problems in the development status and strategy of the rooftop productive landscape. It proposes complementary optimization strategies to serve as a reference for the rooftop design of commercial complexes and the utilization of a significant amount of idle space on the roofs.

First Report of Golovinomyces cichoracearum Causing Powdery Mildew on Zinnia elegans in China.

Zinnia elegans, common zinnia, is an annual plant with highly ornamental values. It is widely planted in many nurseries, city parks, universities and home gardens in China. From August to October 2020, powdery mildew-like signs and symptoms were observed on leaves of Z. elegans growing on the campus of Henan Normal University, Henan Province, China. White powdery colonies in circular- or irregularly shaped-lesions were abundant on both surfaces of leaves and covered up to 95 % of the leaf area. Any infected leaves were chlorotic, deformed or senescence. More than 70 % of the monitored Z. elegans plants showed these signs and symptoms. Conidiophores (n = 20) were 100 to 200 × 9 to 13 μm and composed of foot cells, followed by straight cells and conidia. Mycelial appressoria were single and nipple-shaped. The oval-shaped conidia (n = 30) were 22 to 36 × 12 to 18 μm, with a length/width ratio of 1.4 to 2.7, and produced germ tubes from the polar ends of the spore. No chasmothecia were found. Based on these morphological characteristics, the pathogen was initially identified morphologically as Golovinomyces cichoracearum (Braun and Cook 2012). Structures of the pathogen were scraped from infected leaves and total genomic DNA was isolated using the method previously described by Zhu et al. (2019). The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA was amplified by PCR using the primers ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990) and the amplicon was sequenced by Invitrogen (Shanghai, China). The sequence for the fungus was deposited into GenBank under Accession No. MW029904 and was 99.83 % identical (595/596 bp) to G. cichoracearum on Symphyotrichum novi-belgii (HM769725)(Mørk et al. 2011). To perform pathogenicity analysis, leaf surfaces of five healthy plants were fixed in a settling tower and then inoculated by blowing fungal conidia from mildew-infested leaves using pressurized air. Five non-inoculated plants served as a control. The inoculated and non-inoculated plants were separately maintained in two growth chambers (humidity, 60 %; light/dark, 16 h/8 h; temperature, 18 ℃). Eleven- to twelve-days post-inoculation, powdery mildew signs were conspicuous on inoculated plants, while control plants remained healthy. Similar results were obtained by conducting two repeated pathogenicity assays. Thus, based on the morphological characteristics and molecular analysis, the pathogen was identified and confirmed as G. cichoracearum. This pathogen has been reported on Z. elegans in India, Israel, Jordan, Korea, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, and Turkey (Farr and Rossman 2020). To our best knowledge, this is the first report of G. cichoracearum on Z. elegans in China. The sudden outbreak of powdery mildew caused by G. cichoracearum on Z. elegans may adversely impact the plant health and ornamental value in China. Therefore, the confirmation of G. cichoracearum infecting Z. elegans expands the understanding of this pathogen and provides the fundamental knowledge for future powdery mildew control.

Graphic-analytical model of cultivation garden in Suzhou. Generation of planning structures with Rhinoceros (Grasshopper)

The paper explores the mechanisms of digital imitation of traditional tools for designing private gardens in China, the Cultivation Garden in Suzhou, in particular. New graphic-analytical model is proposed. Various approaches are considered for space as an integral structure. Both domestic and foreign literature in the field is investigated, and mathematical tools are selected to analyze the planning structure. The graphical definition of the architecture is given, the areas of its application are considered. An analogy is drawn between the graphicanalytical model and traditional Chinese tools and techniques for the space formation. The graphic-analytical model of the Cultivation Garden is proposed and investigated, and new planning schemes are then suggested. The relevance of the work lies in the use of new tools and techniques for analyzing the spatial structure of historical objects and new design solutions. The aim of this work is to study the graphic-analytical model of the Cultivation Garden, describe the main stages of its development.The following approaches are used: the analysis of the literature in the field; photographs and measurements of the Cultivation Garden; computer simulation; digital structural analysis; generative design method.The generating mechanism in the form of a script in Rhinoceros (Grasshopper) is examined in detail. The process of creating a garden plan is shown. The analysis and generation tool are given together with their disadvantages. A further research into finalization of the script is required for visual representation of the results obtained.

Rapid evolution of latitudinal clines in growth and defence of an invasive weed.

Re-establishment of heritable latitudinal clines in growth-related traits has been recognised as evidence for adaptive evolution in invasive plants. However, less information is known about latitudinal clines in defence and joint clinal evolution of growth and defence in invasive plants. We planted 14 native Argentinean populations and 14 introduced Chinese populations of Alternanthera philoxeroides in replicate common gardens in China. We investigated the latitudinal clines of traits related to growth and defence, and plasticity of these traits in relation to experiment site and soil nitrogen. We found that chemical defence decreased with latitude in introduced populations but increased with latitude in native populations. For growth rate, latitudinal clines were positive in introduced populations but nonexistent in native populations. There were also parallel positive latitudinal clines in total/shoot biomass and specific leaf area. Experiment site affected the occurrence or magnitude of latitudinal clines in growth rate, branch intensity and triterpenoid saponins concentration. Introduced populations were more plastic to experiment site and soil nitrogen than native populations. We provide evidence for rapid evolution of clines in growth and defence in an invasive plant. Altered herbivory gradients and trade-off between growth and defence may explain nonparallel clines between the native and introduced ranges.

Intraspecific differences of Asian/Australian Phragmites australis subgroups reveal no potentially invasive traits

Phragmites australis is a cosmopolitan plant species with high intraspecific diversity and phenotypic plasticity. Due to its variability and large ecological niche breadth, subgroups of P. australis have become invasive in North America, and this invasion has been recognized late. While this cryptic invasion on the American continent has received much attention, little is known about the potential invasiveness of other subgroups, especially within Asian/Australian P. australis. We therefore compared the performance of three subgroups within the Asian/Australian group: a freshwater (CN) and an estuarine (YRD) subgroup collected in China and a genetically closely related subgroup collected from Australia (FEAU), grown in two common gardens in China. Our results showed that the FEAU subgroup had no strong invasive potential, as its total biomass, height, shoot number, specific leaf area, and stomatal conductance were lower than that of the two native subgroups. All three subgroups responded similarly with most traits to the different climates of the gardens, albeit with different response strength, expressed as phenotypic plasticity indices. The potential cryptic invasion risk of the FEAU subgroup in China seems to be low, since its functional traits showed low competitiveness and most traits with the lowest plasticity occurred in FEAU. However, caution is still advised, because other invasive mechanisms, such as enemy release or the performance under extreme environmental conditions were not tested in our study.

Design and Social Factors Affecting the Formation of Social Capital in Chinese Community Garden

In recent years, community gardens are becoming more and more popular in China. However, the role of these community gardens varies significantly: some community gardens serve as an effective means of promoting social capital, while others cause social contradictions and public doubts due to the lack of professional design and management. Therefore, this paper aims to learn and better understand what factors affect the formation of social capital in Chinese community gardens. It screened eleven design factors and seven social factors and made social capital scale through literature review and expert workshop. On this basis, this study selected 35 community gardens in China as sample spaces, and collected 1257 questionnaires about the perception for social capital of gardeners through survey. In the statistical analysis phase, factor analysis and regression analysis were applied to analyze the role and the relative importance of different factors and social capital. Results show that the integration with green infrastructure, accessibility, size, visual openness, planting form, proportion of unproductive landscape, agricultural infrastructure, and smart infrastructure have significant impacts on social capital level. Meanwhile, the types of stakeholders, management rules, supervision system, self-management team, and operational activities have similar impacts on social capital level. This study recommends that planners and designers should adjust the above related factors in community garden design, and local government is urged to integrate community gardens into urban plans and public policies.

WITHDRAWN: Ecological landscape planning and design based on the Internet of Things system and VR technology

Abstract Intelligent, real-time, is essential to low-cost, the planning and design of a distributed ecosystem to understand, to manage the rapidly changing ecosystem. However, in the era of big data, most new technology, especially in remote areas of fragile ecosystems, it is not introduced to the planning and design of the business ecosystem. Innovative by using the Internet of things technology eco-system in the smart device planning and design and control system in the development and isolated environment, to establish the eco-system of the prototype, internet of things (IoT) technology it is introduced. Smart device development includes the following four categories: to planning the vegetation variables, carrying the relevant CO2 and D13C systems and dispersion device, situ observation, and soil respiration, for measuring evapotranspiration and soil moisture too, large and non-invasive instruments, and vr technology camera, the pressure trigger sensor terrestrial vertebrates planning and design. These new gadgets and is better than earlier workmanship gadgets are associated through a remote correspondence organization. The achievement of the IoT is arranging by the eco-framework that contains the new information lumberjack and the long-run remote sensor network innovation to help the quick transmission of information from the gadget to a remote organization. IoT to arranging the utilization of this environment, many desert zones of the stone, the Amur tiger in the National Park, a desert garden in China, has been affirmed in three of delicate biological systems, including a desert change zone. These gadgets and methods and environmental arranging and plan data frameworks, consistent information assortment, transmission, handling, made by, and IoT point use of. Incorporate on the grounds that it will give a stage to environment the executives and dynamic in the time of large information, to design the Internet of things, the foundation of this eco-framework, will be the new worldview for natural scene arranging.

Identifying the Biological Characteristics Associated with Oviposition Behavior of Tea Leafhopper Empoasca onukii Matsuda Using the Blue Light Detection Method.

Simple SummaryThe tea leafhopper (Empoasca onukii Matsuda) is currently one of the most threatening pests in tea gardens in China. To locate and count tea leafhopper eggs, stereomicroscopy is a conventional method by dissecting the tender tissues, which is both time- and labor-consuming. The scarcity of a verified method to directly observe and investigate intact eggs within tea shoots impedes the research efforts to test the oviposition behavior of E. onukii. Herein, comparing against the stereomicroscope detection method (SMDM), we evaluated the blue light detection method (BLDM), a technique recently developed for other species in detecting E. onukii eggs directly and non-destructively within the tender shoot for four tea cultivars. The conclusion indicated that BLDM could correctly measure the egg laying quantity of E. onukii on intact tea shoots, and its accuracy was not affected by both tea cultivars and egg density in the tender shoot. Furthermore, the biological characteristics concerning the oviposition behaviors that have rarely been reported previously for E. onukii were investigated using the BLDM. Our findings provide insights for the basic research and theoretical evidence, and allow the follow-up studies for the strategy and mechanism associated with the egg laying behavior of E. onukii.Tea leafhopper (Empoasca onukii Matsuda) is amongst the key pests in tea plantations around the East Asian region. Stereomicroscopy is a conventional method used for detecting tea leafhopper eggs by dissecting the tender tissues. However, there is a need for a faster and more efficient method to directly observe and investigate intact eggs within tea shoots. The absence of a proven method limits research efforts for determining the oviposition behavior of E. onukii. Herein, we applied the blue light detection method (BLDM), a technique recently developed for other species, in order to detect E. onukii eggs directly and non-destructively within the tender shoot. In addition, we compared BLDM against the traditional stereomicroscope detection method (SMDM) for four tea cultivars. Notably, our results revealed that BLDM was precise and effective in measuring the egg laying quantity of E. onukii on intact tea shoots. Neither tea cultivars nor egg density in the tender shoot significantly affected the accuracy of BLDM. Furthermore, biological characteristics that have rarely been reported previously for E. onukii were investigated using the BLDM, including zygote duration, ovipositional rhythm, egg distribution within the tender shoot, and in different leaf positions, numbers of eggs laid by a single female daily, and laid by the entire generation. Therefore, these findings provide insights into the basic and theoretical evidence for the strategy and mechanism associated with the oviposition behavior of E. onukii.

A Review of Researches on Plant Configuration and Decontamination Efficiency of Rain Gardens in China

Rain garden is a low-impact development method that uses topographic design to store and purify rainwater, and then adjust rainwater to reuse rainwater. The plants in the rain garden are the key components of its function of storing and purifying rainwater. This article refers to the CNKI database literature about the selection and planting effects of rainwater garden plants as of October 2019. Using literature measurement analysis and content analysis methods, we found that: 1) The research on rainwater garden plants has been increasing and deepening, involving various disciplines; 2) Research on the configuration of rainwater garden plants has gradually shifted from qualitative research to quantitative research; 3) The types of rainwater garden plants that can be selected are diverse, and scientific configuration methods can improve efficiency; 4) Most research literature on plant purification in the aquatic or wet plants on the removal and purification of nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals and other pollutants and other aspects. Finally, it discusses the deficiencies of the rainwater garden plant research, and looks forward to its future research direction, aiming to provide reference for the rainwater garden plant selection and rainwater garden scientific construction in China.

The Architecture of the Network of Orchid–Fungus Interactions in Nine Co-occurring Dendrobium Species

Orchid-fungus interaction networks often consist of many different fungi that interact with co-occurring orchids in complex ways, but so far it remains largely unclear which processes determine network structure and both ecological and evolutionary mechanisms have been invoked to explain network architecture. In this research, we tested the hypothesis that closely related orchids associate with similar mycorrhizal fungi and vice versa by investigating the architecture of the interaction network between orchid mycorrhizal fungi (OMF) and nine co-occurring epiphytic Dendrobium species. All species grew on the bark of a single tree species (Camelia sinensis) in a traditional tea garden in China, which allowed us to assess the role of evolutionary history in determining the assembly of orchid-fungus communities without the confounding effects of environmental variation. In total, 101 different fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) known to be mycorrhizal in orchids were found. Most of the identified mycorrhizal OTUs were members of the Serendipitaceae (80% of all identified mycorrhizal sequences). All orchid species associated with a large number of fungi (average number of links: 31.6 ± 3.8), and orchids from the same species tended to have significantly more similar fungal partners than orchids from different species. The network of interactions was significantly nested (NODF = 41.59, p < 0.01), but not significantly compartmentalized (M = 0.26, Mrandom = 0.27). Phylogenetic analyses showed that the interaction network was not significantly affected by the phylogenies of the orchids or the fungi. Overall, these results indicate that the studied orchid species associated with multiple fungi simultaneously, and that the network of associations was built on asymmetric and weak reciprocal dependences. Associating with multiple fungi may be a successful strategy of orchids to colonize vacant sites and to increase survival of established plants in epiphytic habitats.

Novel caffeine degradation gene cluster is mega-plasmid encoded in Paraburkholderia caffeinilytica CF1.

The widespread use of caffeine in food and drug industries has caused great environmental pollution. Herein, an efficient caffeine-degrading strain Paraburkholderia caffeinilytica CF1 isolated from a tea garden in China can utilize caffeine as its sole carbon and nitrogen source. Combination of chromatographic and spectrophotometric techniques confirmed that strain CF1 adopts N-demethylation pathway for caffeine degradation. Whole genome sequencing of strain CF1 reveals that it has two chromosomes with sizes 3.62Mb and 4.53Mb, and a 174-kb mega-plasmid. The plasmid P1 specifically harbors the genes essential for caffeine metabolism. By analyzing the sequence alignment and quantitative real-time PCR data, the redundant gene cluster of caffeine degradation was elucidated. Genes related to catalyzing the N1-demethylation of caffeine to theobromine, the first step of caffeine degradation were heterologously expressed, and methylxanthine N1-demethylase was purified and characterized. Above all, this study systematically unravels the molecular mechanism of caffeine degradation by Paraburkholderia. KEY POINTS: • Caffeine degradation cluster in Paraburkholderia caffeinilytica CF1 was located in mega-plasmid P1. • The whole genome and the caffeine degrading pathway of P. caffeinilytica CF1 were sequenced and elucidated, respectively. • This study succeeded in heterologous expression of methylxanthine N1-demethylase (CdnA) and Rieske oxygenase reductase (CdnD) and illuminated the roles of CdnA and CdnD in caffeine degradation of P. caffeinilytica CF1.

PRINCIPAL DESIGN TECHNIQUES OF RECONCILIATION OF ARCHITECTURE AND NATURE IN CHINESE GARDENS OF SUZHOU

Park and garden design of China initially had relatively few strict limitations and rules and there was a great deal of room for creativity. However study of gardens of Suzhou makes it possible to distinguish some basic compositional design features. Those features are: zoning of the park space; designing of routs for visi-tors; creation of contrast and background both in large landscape zones and in small-scale objects; “land-scape borrowing”; use of depth and succession of landscape views. A major challenge for the architect is creation of complex, multi-layered space, where walking routes between the compositional dominants play a significant role. The use of these design features visually extends the garden space, gives the visitor choice between several routes and enriches content of the garden. Besides, several main design objects can be dis-tinguished, such as: large and small water bodies; artificial mountains and stone groups; garden structures, including pavilions, terraces, towers and galleries; decorations and vegetation. Individual design objects and in particular the architectural structures allow us to elaborate the garden space in more detail. Chinese park is inconceivable without the synthesis between the nature and architecture. The acquisition of basic compositional design features allow us not only to better understand the organization of private gardens in China, but also to use them in own design practice.

The Spatial Feature of Different Attraction Functions in Changchun Garden from the Aspect of Horizontal Tablet

This study focuses on the spatial features of Changchun Garden in China from the perspective of horizontal tablets. From the perspective of attraction functions, the spatial features of Changchun Garden have been analyzed and considered comprehensively by combining the grouping of horizontal tablets. The attractions with a residential function reflected the atmosphere and the artistic conception of the emperor’s residence through the horizontal tablets, which also expressed the emperor’s self-restraint. In the attractions with a sightseeing function, the horizontal tablets described Chinese and western style garden landscapes and highlighted the unique sightseeing experience. The horizontal tablets in the attractions with a religious function underlined the ideological connotation of religion to the natural landscape. In the attractions with a political function, the horizontal tablets corresponded to the layout of the space, and expressed the emperor’s political ideals and pursuits. This study will suggest that understanding the relationship between attraction functions and horizontal tablet meanings helps to elucidate the garden's spatial features and offers greater insight into the meaning of Chinese traditional gardens.