Gamma-ray Bursts Physics Research Articles

Radio Afterglows of Gamma Ray Bursts

This review focuses on the physics of Gamma Ray Bursts probed through their radio afterglow emission. Even though radio band is the least explored of the afterglow spectrum, it has played an important role in the progress of GRB physics, specifically in confirming the hypothesized relativistic effects. Currently radio astronomy is in the beginning of a revolution. The high sensitive Square Kilometer Array (SKA) is being planned, its precursors and pathfinders are about to be operational, and several existing instruments are undergoing upgradation. Thus, the afterglow detection statistics and results from follow up programs are expected to improve in the coming years. We list a few avenues unique to radio band which if explored to full potential have the promise to greatly contribute to the future of GRB physics.

Photospheric emission in gamma-ray bursts

A major breakthrough in our understanding of gamma-ray bursts (GRB) prompt emission physics occurred in the last few years, with the realization that a thermal component accompanies the over-all nonthermal prompt spectra. This thermal part is important by itself, as it provides direct probe of the physics in the innermost outflow regions. It further has an indirect importance, as a source of seed photons for inverse-Compton scattering, thereby it contributes to the nonthermal part as well. In this short review, we highlight some key recent developments. Observationally, although so far it was clearly identified only in a minority of bursts, there is indirect evidence that a thermal component exists in a very large fraction of GRBs, possibly close to 100%. Theoretically, the existence of a thermal component has a large number of implications as a probe of underlying GRB physics. Some surprising implications include its use as a probe of the jet dynamics, geometry and magnetization.

A Peculiar GRB 110731A: Lorentz Factor, Jet Composition, Central Engine, and Progenitor

Abstract The jet compositions, central engines, and progenitors of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) remain open questions in GRB physics. Applying broadband observations, including GRB prompt emission and afterglow properties derived from Fermi and Swift data, as well as from Keck host-galaxy observations, we address these questions for the peculiar, bright GRB 110731A. By using the pair-opacity method, we derive Γ0 > 190 during the prompt emission phase. Alternatively, we derive Γ0 ≈ 580 and Γ0 ≈ 154 by invoking the early-afterglow phase within the homogeneous density and wind cases, respectively. On the other hand, nondetection of a thermal component in the spectra suggests that the prompt emission is likely powered by dissipation of a Poynting-flux-dominated jet leading to synchrotron radiation in an optically thin region. The nondetection of a jet break in the X-ray and optical bands allows us to place a lower limit on the jet opening angle θ j > 5.°5. Within a millisecond magnetar central engine scenario, we derive the period P 0 and polar magnetic field strength B p, which have extreme (but still allowed) values. The moderately short observed duration (7.3 s) and relatively large redshift (z = 2.83) place the burst as a “rest-frame short” GRB, so the progenitor of the burst is subject to debate. Its relatively large parameter (ratio of the 1 s peak flux of a pseudo-GRB and the background flux) and a large physical offset from a potential host galaxy suggest that the progenitor of GRB 110731A may be a compact-star merger.

The rest-frame Golenetskii correlation via a hierarchical Bayesian analysis

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are characterised by a strong correlation between the instantaneous luminosity and the spectral peak energy within a burst. This correlation, which is known as the hardness-intensity correlation or the Golenetskii correlation, not only holds important clues to the physics of GRBs but is thought to have the potential to determine redshifts of bursts. In this paper, I use a hierarchical Bayesian model to study the universality of the rest-frame Golenetskii correlation and in particular I assess its use as a redshift estimator for GRBs. I find that, using a power-law prescription of the correlation, the power-law indices cluster near a common value, but have a broader variance than previously reported ($\sim 1-2$). Furthermore, I find evidence that there is spread in intrinsic rest-frame correlation normalizations for the GRBs in our sample ($\sim 10^{51}-10^{53}$ erg s$^{-1}$). This points towards variable physical settings of the emission (magnetic field strength, number of emitting electrons, photospheric radius, viewing angle, etc.). Subsequently, these results eliminate the Golenetskii correlation as a useful tool for redshift determination and hence a cosmological probe. Nevertheless, the Bayesian method introduced in this paper allows for a better determination of the rest frame properties of the correlation, which in turn allows for more stringent limitations for physical models of the emission to be set.

Possible gamma-ray burst radio detections by the Square Kilometre Array. New perspectives

The next generation interferometric radio telescope, the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), which will be the most sensitive and largest radio telescope ever constructed, could greatly contribute to the detection, survey and characterization of Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs). By the SKA, it will be possible to perform the follow up of GRBs even for several months. This approach would be extremely useful to extend the Spectrum Energetic Distribution (SED) from the gamma to the to radio band and would increase the number of radio detectable GRBs. In principle, the SKA could help to understand the physics of GRBs by setting constraints on theoretical models. This goal could be achieved by taking into account multiple observations at different wavelengths in order to obtain a deeper insight of the sources. Here, we present an estimation of GRB radio detections, showing that the GRBs can really be observed by the SKA. The approach that we present consists in determining blind detection rates derived by a very large sample consisting of merging several GRB catalogues observed by current missions as Swift, Fermi, Agile and INTEGRAL and by previous missions as BeppoSAX, CGRO, GRANAT, HETE-2, Ulysses and Wind. The final catalogue counts 7516 distinct sources. We compute the fraction of GRBs that could be observed by the SKA at high and low frequencies, above its observable sky. Considering the planned SKA sensitivity and through an extrapolation based on previous works and observations, we deduce the minimum fluence in the range 15-150 keV. This is the energy interval where a GRB should emit to be detectable in the radio band by the SKA. Results seem consistent with observational capabilities.

Perspectives on Gamma-Ray Burst Physics and Cosmology with Next Generation Facilities

High-redshift Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) beyond redshift $\sim6$ are potentially powerful tools to probe the distant early Universe. Their detections in large numbers and at truly high redshifts call for the next generation of high-energy wide-field instruments with unprecedented sensitivity at least one order of magnitude higher than the ones currently in orbit. On the other hand, follow-up observations of the afterglows of high-redshift GRBs and identification of their host galaxies, which would be difficult for the currently operating telescopes, require new, extremely large facilities of at multi-wavelengths. This chapter describes future experiments that are expected to advance this exciting field, both being currently built and being proposed. The legacy of Swift will be continued by SVOM, which is equipped with a set of space-based multi-wavelength instruments as well as and a ground segment including a wide angle camera and two follow-up telescopes. The established Lobster-eye X-ray focusing optics provides a promising technology for the detection of faint GRBs at very large distances, based on which the {THESEUS}, {Einstein Probe} and other mission concepts have been proposed. Follow-up observations and exploration of the reionization era will be enabled by large facilities such as {SKA} in the radio, the 30m class telescopes in the optical/near-IR, and the space-borne {WFIRST} and {JWST} in the optical/near-IR/mid-IR. In addition, the X-ray and $\gamma$-ray polarization experiment POLAR is also introduced.

Microphysics and dynamics of the gamma-ray burst 121024A

Aims. The aim of the study is to constrain the physics of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) by analysing the multi-wavelength afterglow data set of GRB 121024A that covers the full range from radio to X-rays. Methods. Using multi-epoch broad-band observations of the GRB 121024A afterglow, we measured the three characteristic break frequencies of the synchrotron spectrum. We used six epochs of combined XRT and GROND data to constrain the temporal slopes, the dust extinction, the X-ray absorption, and the spectral slope with high accuracy. Two more epochs of combined data from XRT, GROND, APEX, CARMA, and EVLA were used to set constraints on the break frequencies and therefore on the micro-physical and dynamical parameters. Results. The XRT and GROND light curves show a simultaneous and achromatic break at around 49 ks. As a result, the crossing of the synchrotron cooling break is no suitable explanation for the break in the light curve. The multi wavelength data allow us to test two plausible scenarios explaining the break: a jet break, and the end of energy injection. The jet-break scenario requires a hard electron spectrum, a very low cooling break frequency, and a non-spreading jet. The energy injection avoids these problems, but requires $\epsilon_e > 1 (k = 2)$, spherical outflow, and $\epsilon_B < 10^{-9}$. Conclusions. In light of the extreme microphysical parameters required by the energy-injection model, we favour a jet-break scenario where $\nu_m < \nu_{sa}$ to explain the observations. This scenario gives physically meaningful microphysical parameters, and it also naturally explains the reported detection of linear and circular polarisation.

COSMIC EVOLUTION OF LONG GAMMA-RAY BURST LUMINOSITY

ABSTRACT The cosmic evolution of gamma-ray burst (GRB) luminosity is essential for revealing the GRB physics and for using GRBs as cosmological probes. We investigate the luminosity evolution of long GRBs with a large sample of 258 Swift/BAT GRBs. By describing the peak luminosity evolution of individual GRBs as L p &prop; ( 1 &plus; z ) k ?> , we get k = 1.49 &PlusMinus; 0.19 ?> using the nonparametric τ statistics method without considering observational biases of GRB trigger and redshift measurement. By modeling these biases with the observed peak flux and characterizing the peak luminosity function of long GRBs as a smoothly broken power law with a break that evolves as L b &prop; ( 1 &plus; z ) k b ?> , we obtain k b = 1.14 &minus; 0.47 &plus; 0.99 ?> through simulations based on the assumption that the long GRB rate follows the star formation rate incorporating the cosmic metallicity history. The derived k and k b values are systematically smaller than those reported in previous papers. By removing the observational biases of the GRB trigger and redshift measurement based on our simulation analysis, we generate mock complete samples of 258 and 1000 GRBs to examine how these biases affect the τ statistics method. We get k = 0.94 &PlusMinus; 0.14 ?> and k = 0.80 &PlusMinus; 0.09 ?> for the two samples, indicating that these observational biases may lead to overestimating the k value. With the large uncertainty of k b derived from our simulation analysis, one cannot even convincingly argue for a robust evolution feature of the GRB luminosity.

High energy emission from gamma-ray bursts

Gamma-ray bursts are the most violent stellar explosions in the universe. They are believed to be originated from deaths of massive stars (It has been confirmed that some gamma-ray bursts with durations longer than 2 s are confirmed to be associated with a special type of supernovae.) or mergers of two compact stars (e.g. mergers of double neutron stars, which have rather short time scales, and are responsible for short bursts with durations shorter than 2 s). Since the launch and commission of Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope, working at 8 keV-300 GeV band, in 2008, significant achievements of gamma-ray bursts prompt emission and high-energy radiation have been made. This review will show some of the important observations of gamma-ray bursts provided by Fermi in recent years, highlighting the implications of these observations to the physics of gamma-ray bursts (including photosphere emission and magnetization of gamma-ray burst ejecta, as well as origins of GeV high-energy emission), especially the major advancements in constraining gamma-ray bursts initial velocity/Lorentz factor, constraining models of extragalactic background light, and testing Lorentz invariance violation provided by high-energy (> 100 MeV) observations made by Fermis LAT instrument.

The emission of Gamma Ray Bursts as a test-bed for modified gravity

The extreme physical conditions of Gamma Ray Bursts can constitute a useful observational laboratory to test theories of gravity where very high curvature regimes are involved. Here we propose a sort of curvature engine capable, in principle, of explaining the huge energy emission of Gamma Ray Bursts. Specifically, we investigate the emission of radiation by charged particles non-minimally coupled to the gravitational background where higher order curvature invariants are present. The coupling gives rise to an additional force inducing a non-geodesic motion of particles. This fact allows a strong emission of radiation by gravitationally accelerated particles. As we will show with some specific model, the energy emission is of the same order of magnitude of that characterizing the Gamma Ray Burst physics. Alternatively, strong curvature regimes can be considered as a natural mechanism for the generation of highly energetic astrophysical events. Possible applications to cosmology are discussed.

GAMMA-RAY BURST SPECTRA AND SPECTRAL CORRELATIONS FROM SUB-PHOTOSPHERIC COMPTONIZATION

One of the most important unresolved issues in gamma-ray burst physics is the origin of the prompt gamma-ray spectrum. Its general non-thermal character and the softness in the X-ray band remain unexplained. We tackle these issues by performing Monte Carlo simulations of radiation-matter interactions in a scattering dominated photon-lepton plasma. The plasma -- initially in equilibrium -- is driven to non-equilibrium conditions by a sudden energy injection in the lepton population, mimicking the effect of a shock wave or the dissipation of magnetic energy. Equilibrium restoration occurs due to energy exchange between the photons and leptons. While the initial and final equilibrium spectra are thermal, the transitional photon spectra are characterized by non-thermal features such as power-law tails, high energy bumps, and multiple components. Such non-thermal features are observed at infinity if the dissipation occurs at small to moderate optical depths, and the spectrum is released before thermalization is complete. We model the synthetic spectra with a Band function and show that the resulting spectral parameters are similar to observations for a frequency range of 2-3 orders of magnitude around the peak. In addition, our model predicts correlations between the low-frequency photon index and the peak frequency as well as between the low- and high-frequency indices. We explore baryon and pair dominated fireballs and reach the conclusion that baryonic fireballs are a better model for explaining the observed features of gamma-ray burst spectra.

SELECTION EFFECTS IN GAMMA-RAY BURST CORRELATIONS: CONSEQUENCES ON THE RATIO BETWEEN GAMMA-RAY BURST AND STAR FORMATION RATES

Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs) visible up to very high redshift have become attractive targets as potential new distance indicators. It is still not clear whether the relations proposed so far originate from an unknown GRB physics or result from selection effects. We investigate this issue in the case of the $L_X-T^*_a$ correlation (hereafter LT) between the X-ray luminosity $L_X (T_a)$ at the end of the plateau phase, $T_a$, and the rest frame time $T^{*}_a$. We devise a general method to build mock data sets starting from a GRB world model and taking into account selection effects on both time and luminosity. This method shows how not knowing the efficiency function could influence the evaluation of the intrinsic slope of any correlation and the GRB density rate. We investigate biases (small offsets in slope or normalization) that would occur in the LT relation as a result of truncations, possibly present in the intrinsic distributions of $L_X$ and $T^*_a$. We compare these results with the ones in Dainotti et al. (2013) showing that in both cases the intrinsic slope of the LT correlation is $\approx -1.0$. This method is general, therefore relevant to investigate if any other GRB correlation is generated by the biases themselves. Moreover, because the farthest GRBs and star-forming galaxies probe the reionization epoch, we evaluate the redshift-dependent ratio $\Psi(z)=(1+z)^{\alpha}$ of the GRB rate to star formation rate (SFR). We found a modest evolution $-0.2\leq \alpha \leq 0.5$ consistent with Swift GRB afterglow plateau in the redshift range $0.99<z<9.4$.

GAMMA-RAY BURST PROMPT EMISSION

The origin of gamma-ray burst (GRB) prompt emission, bursts of γ-rays lasting from shorter than one second to thousands of seconds, remains not fully understood after more than 40 years of observations. The uncertainties lie in several open questions in the GRB physics, including jet composition, energy dissipation mechanism, particle acceleration mechanism and radiation mechanism. Recent broad-band observations of prompt emission with Fermi sharpen the debates in these areas, which stimulated intense theoretical investigations invoking very different ideas. I will review these debates, and argue that the current data suggest the following picture: A quasi-thermal spectral component originating from the photosphere of the relativistic ejecta has been detected in some GRBs. Even though in some cases (e.g. GRB 090902B) this component dominates the spectrum, in most GRBs, this component either forms a sub-dominant "shoulder" spectral component in the low energy spectral regime of the more dominant "Band" component, or is not detectable at all. The main "Band" spectral component likely originates from the optically thin region due to synchrotron radiation. The diverse magnetization in the GRB central engine is likely the origin of the observed diverse prompt emission properties among bursts.

ON THE CORRELATION OF LOW-ENERGY SPECTRAL INDICES AND REDSHIFTS OF GAMMA-RAY BURSTS

It was found by Amati et al. in 2002 that for a small sample of 9 gamma-ray bursts, more distant events appear to be systematically harder in the soft gamma-ray band. Here, we have collected a larger sample of 65 gamma-ray bursts, whose time integrated spectra are well established and can be well fitted with the so called Band function. It is confirmed that a correlation between the redshifts ($z$) and the low-energy indices ($\alpha$) of the Band function does exist, though it is a bit more scattered than the result of Amati et al. This correlation can not be simply attributed to the effect of photon reddening. Furthermore, correlations between $\alpha$ and $E_{\rm peak}$ (the peak energy in the $\nu F_{\nu}$ spectrum in the rest frame), $\alpha$ and $E_{\rm iso}$ (the isotropic energy release), $\alpha$ and $L_{\rm iso}$ (the isotropic luminosity) are also found, which indicate that these parameters are somehow connected. The results may give useful constraints on the physics of gamma-ray bursts.

Gamma-ray burst science in the era of the Cherenkov Telescope Array

We outline the science prospects for gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) with the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA), the next-generation ground-based gamma-ray observatory operating at energies above few tens of GeV. With its low energy threshold, large effective area and rapid slewing capabilities, CTA will be able to measure the spectra and variability of GRBs at multi-GeV energies with unprecedented photon statistics, and thereby break new ground in elucidating the physics of GRBs, which is still poorly understood. Such measurements will also provide crucial diagnostics of ultra-high-energy cosmic ray and neutrino production in GRBs, advance observational cosmology by probing the high-redshift extragalactic background light and intergalactic magnetic fields, and contribute to fundamental physics by testing Lorentz invariance violation with high precision. Aiming to quantify these goals, we present some simulated observations of GRB spectra and light curves, together with estimates of their detection rates with CTA. Although the expected detection rate is modest, of order a few GRBs per year, hundreds or more high-energy photons per burst may be attainable once they are detected. We also address various issues related to following up alerts from satellites and other facilities with CTA, as well as follow-up observations at other wavelengths. The possibility of discovering and observing GRBs from their onset including short GRBs during a wide-field survey mode is also briefly discussed.

Prospects for detecting gamma-ray bursts at very high energies with the Cherenkov Telescope Array

We discuss the prospects for the detection of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) by the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA), the next generation, ground-based facility of imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes (IACTs) operating above a few tens of GeV. By virtue of its fast slewing capabilities, the lower energy threshold compared to current IACTs, and the much larger effective area compared to satellite instruments, CTA can measure the spectra and variability of GRBs with excellent photon statistics at multi-GeV energies. Employing a model of the GRB population whose properties are broadly consistent with observations by the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) and Large Area Telescope (LAT) onboard Fermi, we simulate follow-up observations of GRBs with the Large Size Telescopes (LSTs), the component of CTA with the fastest slew speed and the best sensitivity at energies below a few hundred GeV. For our fiducial assumptions, we foresee that the LSTs can detect ~0.1 GRBs per year during the prompt phase and ~0.5 per year in the afterglow phase, considering only one array site and both GBM and the Space-based multi-band astronomical Variable Object Monitor (SVOM) as the alert instruments. The detection rates can be enhanced by a factor of about 5 and 6 for the prompt emission and the afterglow, respectively, assuming two array sites with the same sensitivity and that the GBM localization error can be reduced to less than 1 deg. The expected distribution of redshift and photon counts are presented, showing that despite the modest event rate, hundreds or more multi-GeV photons can be anticipated from a single burst once they are detected. We also study how the detection rate depends on the intrinsic GRB properties and the delay time between the burst trigger and the follow-up observation.

LORENTZ-FACTOR–ISOTROPIC-LUMINOSITY/ENERGY CORRELATIONS OF GAMMA-RAY BURSTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

The bulk Lorentz factor of the gamma-ray burst (GRB) ejecta (Gamma_0) is a key parameter to understand the GRB physics. Liang et al. have discovered a correlation between Gamma_0 and isotropic gamma-ray energy: Gamma_0\proptoE_{gamma,iso,52}^{0.25}. By including more GRBs with updated data and more methods to derive Gamma_0, we confirm this correlation and obtain Gamma_0~91E_{gamma,iso,52}^{0.29}. Evaluating the mean isotropic gamma-ray luminosities L_{gamma,iso} of the GRBs in the same sample, we discover an even tighter correlation Gamma_0~249 L_{gamma,iso,52}^{0.30}. We propose an interpretation to this later correlation. Invoking a neutrino-cooled hyperaccretion disk around a stellar mass black hole as the central engine of GRBs, we derive jet luminosity powered by neutrino annihilation and baryon loading from a neutrino-driven wind. Applying beaming correction, we finally derive Gamma_0\proptoL_{gamma,iso}^{0.22}, which is well consistent with the data. This suggests that the central engine of long GRBs is likely a stellar mass black hole surrounded by a hyper-accreting disk.

STEPWISE FILTER CORRELATION METHOD AND EVIDENCE OF SUPERPOSED VARIABILITY COMPONENTS IN GAMMA-RAY BURST PROMPT EMISSION LIGHT CURVES

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) have variable lightcurves. Although most models attribute the observed variability to one physical origin (e.g. central engine activity, clumpy circumburst medium, relativistic turbulence), some models invoke two physically distinct variability components. We develop a method, namely, the stepwise filter correlation (SFC) method, to decompose the variability components in a GRB lightcurve. Based on a low-pass filter technique, we progressively filter the high frequency signals from the lightcurve, and then perform a correlation analysis between each adjunct pair of filtered lightcurves. Our simulations suggest that if a mock lightcurve contains a slow variability component superposed on a rapidly varying time sequence, the correlation coefficient as a function of the filter frequency would display a prominent dip feature around the frequency of the slow component. Through simulations, we demonstrate that this method can identify significant clustering structures of a lightcurve in the frequency domain, and proved that it can catch superposed signals that are otherwise not easy to retrieve based on other methods (e.g. the power density spectrum analysis method). We apply this method to 266 BATSE bright GRBs. We find that the majority of the bursts have clear evidence of such a superposition effect. We perform a statistical analysis of the identified variability components, and discuss the implications for GRB physics.

Can a double component outflow explain the X-ray and optical lightcurves of Swift Gamma-Ray Bursts?

An increasing sample of Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) observed by Swift show evidence of ‘chromatic breaks’, i.e. breaks that are present in the X-ray but not in the optical. We find that in a significant fraction of these GRB afterglows the X-ray and the optical emission cannot be produced by the same component. We propose that these afterglow lightcurves are the result of a two-component jet, in which both components undergo energy injection for the whole observation and the X-ray break is due to a jet break in the narrow outflow. Bursts with chromatic breaks also explain another surprising finding, the paucity of late achromatic breaks. We propose a model that may explain the behaviour of GRB emission in both X-ray and optical bands. This model can be a radical and noteworthy alternative to the current interpretation for the ‘canonical’ XRT and UVOT lightcurves, and it bears fundamental implications for GRB physics.

Gamma Ray Bursts: basic facts and ideas

AbstractThe recent years witnessed a dramatic improvement in our knowledge of the phenomenology and physics of Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs). However, our “pillars of knowledge” remain a few, while many aspects remain obscure and not understood. There is no general agreement on the radiation mechanism of the prompt emission, nor on the process able to convert the bulk motion of the fireball into random energy of the emitting leptons. The afterglow phase can now be studied at very early phases, showing an unforeseen phenomenology, still to be understood. In this context, the detection of ~GeV emission from ~10% of GRBs, made possible by the Fermi satellite, can hopefully shed light on some controversial issues.