Game Ranch Research Articles

Application of European standards for health and quality control of game meat on game ranches in South Africa

The health and quality compliance of game carcasses (n = 295) intended for the South African export market and aspiring to comply with the strict hygiene requirements of the European Union were compared with game carcasses (n = 330) available for the local market and currently not subjected to meat safety legislation. Samples were collected in similar seasons and geographical areas in South Africa from 2006 to 2009. Aerobic plate counts (APC) of the heart blood verified that both groups possessed similar ante mortem bacterial status. For health compliance APC, tests for Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus were performed on the carcasses. Surfaces of the local carcasses were swabbed using the European Enviro-biotrace sponge technique at 3 and 72 h post mortem. Unskinned but eviscerated export carcasses in the abattoir were skinned and sampled by incision using a corkborer 72 h post mortem. Temperature and pH readings were recorded at 3 and 72 h post mortem from the longissimus dorsi muscle and the readings at 3 h differed (P = 0.035). Temperatures at 72 h were lower for export than local carcasses (P < 0.001) because of earlier introduction and maintenance of the cold chain. The pH readings also differed between groups at 3 and 72 h (P < 0.001). APC results for the local group exceeded the maximum permissible count (< 10(5)). S. aureus results showed differences (P < 0.001), with readings from the local group being higher. The same tendency was exhibited for E. coli (P = 0.008). Imposition of hygiene guidelines for game ranchers producing meat for the local market is therefore recommended.

Meeting the challenges of game ranch management

Meeting the challenges of game ranch management

Ecological and financial impacts of illegal bushmeat trade in Zimbabwe

AbstractUnder conditions of political instability and economic decline illegal bushmeat hunting has emerged as a serious conservation threat in Zimbabwe. Following settlement of game ranches by subsistence farming communities, wildlife populations have been eradicated over large areas. In several areas still being managed as game ranches illegal hunting is causing further declines of wildlife populations (including threatened species such as the wild dog Lycaon pictus and black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis), threatening the viability of wildlife-based land uses. From August 2001 to July 2009 in Savé Valley Conservancy 10,520 illegal hunting incidents were recorded, 84,396 wire snares removed, 4,148 hunters caught, 2,126 hunting dogs eliminated and at least 6,454 wild animals killed. Estimated future financial losses from illegal hunting in the Conservancy exceed USD 1.1 million year-1. Illegal hunters’ earnings account for 0.31–0.52% of the financial losses that they impose and the bushmeat trade is an inefficient use of wildlife resources. Illegal hunting peaks during the late dry season and is more frequent close to the boundary, near areas resettled during land reform and close to water. Illegal hunting with dogs peaks during moonlight periods. Our study highlights several management and land-use planning steps required to maximize the efficacy of anti-poaching and to reduce the likelihood of high impacts of illegal hunting. Anti-poaching efforts should be aligned with the regular temporal and spatial patterns of illegal hunting. Leases for hunting and tourism concessions should ensure minimum adequate investment by operators in anti-poaching. Reserve designers should minimize the surface area to volume ratio of parks. Fences should not be constructed using wire that can be made into snares. Land reform involving game ranches should integrate communities in wildlife-based land uses and ensure spatial separation between land for wildlife and human settlement. Means are required to create stake-holdings for communities in wildlife and disincentives for illegal hunting.

The perceived impact of herd management practices on sustainable Springbuck (Antidorcas marsupialis) ranching in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Despite its relatively unregulated nature game ranching and utilisation is one of the more important agricultural economic activities and considered arguably the fastest growing enterprise in South Africa. Commercial springbuck (Antidorcas marsupialis) production systems are considered to be supreme examples of such commercial game ranching enterprises that have been established with varying degrees of efficiency and sustainability. Conversion to game ranching also seems to offer some answers to the increasing economic risks and decreasing sustainability associated with livestock farming in marginally profitable and low rainfall. The Eastern Cape Province is such an area. Earlier studies and associated literature suggest that market demand is steadily becoming highly sophisticated with very clear defined demands and expectations. A thorough understanding of game ranch managers' views on sustainability is imperative in order to develop some understanding on decision making regarding sustainability. The relative complexity of the decision making processes associated with commercial springbuck production (wildlife production) systems and the information needs of such decisions call for increased investigations into such processes. The development of instruments to assess the interrelationships of perceptions and decisions in these processes has therefore become of the utmost importance to ensure purposeful delivery of services and information to a highly competitive and diversified industry. This study is a contribution in this process of developing an instrument with which the nature and impact of production decisions on the sustainability of the wildlife ranching enterprise could be anticipated or even predicted.

Comparative Intradermal Tuberculin Testing of Free-Ranging African Buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) Captured forEx SituConservation in the Kafue Basin Ecosystem in Zambia

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is endemic in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) in some National Parks in Southern Africa, whilst no studies have been conducted on BTB on buffalo populations in Zambia. The increased demand for ecotourism and conservation of the African buffalo on private owned game ranches has prompted the Zambian Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) and private sector in Zambia to generate a herd of “BTB-free buffaloes” for ex situ conservation. In the present study, 86 African buffaloes from four different herds comprising a total of 530 animals were investigated for the presence of BTB for the purpose of generating “BTB free” buffalo for ex-situ conservation. Using the comparative intradermal tuberculin test (CIDT) the BTB status at both individual animal and herd level was estimated to be 0.0% by the CIDT technique. Compared to Avian reactors only, a prevalence of 5.8% was determined whilst for Bovine-only reactors a prevalence of 0.0% was determined. These results suggest the likelihood of buffalo herds in the Kafue National Park being free of BTB.

Detection ofBabesiaspp. in Free-Ranging Pukus,Kobus vardonii, on a Game Ranch in Zambia

Babesia spp. were detected from 4 asymptomatic pukus captured on a game ranch in central Zambia in October 2008. Blood smears were examined in 4 species of aymptomatic free-ranging antelopes, namely the puku (Kobus vordanii), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), bushbuck (Tragelaphus sylvaticus), and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and showed the presence of Babesia parasites only in the puku. In the puku, the prevalence of babesiosis was estimated at 33.3% (n=12), while the overall prevalence in all examined animals was 8.5% (n=47). The parasites showed morphological characteristics of paired ring-like stages with the length varying between 1.61 µm and 3.02 µm (mean=2.12 µm, n=27; SD=0.76 µm). Both the infected and non-infected pukus showed good body condition scores (BCS), while the dominant tick species detected from all animals were Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus spp., and Boophilus spp. To our knowledge this is the first report of Babesia spp. infection in pukus in Zambia. These findings suggest that wildlife could play an important role in the epidemiology of babesiosis in Zambia.

Human activity and the drying up of rivers determine abundance and spatial distribution of Black Storks Ciconia nigra on their wintering grounds

Capsule The drying up of rivers results in the fragmentation of home ranges over the winter period, birds avoid areas of high human activity. Aims To investigate the impact of human activity and habitat characteristics on the distribution of Black Storks Ciconia nigra on wintering grounds in West Africa. Methods Seasonal variations in wintering home‐range size and habitat selection of seven Black Storks were studied using satellite tracking from 1998 to 2006. A Black Stork population was followed in the field from 2003 to 2005 in the Nazinga Game Ranch (Burkina Faso) and Ghana. Results Adults and sub adults (n = 5) have smaller mean global ranges than juveniles (n = 2) (532.92 ± 237.17 and 2463.18 ± 405.10 km2 respectively) and smaller mean core ranges (8.83 ± 10.01 and 162.14 ± 131.56 km2 respectively) suggesting that juveniles prospect widely for suitable habitats during their first winter period. In all birds the home range becomes increasingly fragmented from November to February. Two main factors seem to be involved in this fragmentation: (1) Black Storks seem to prefer locations on perennial rivers but many rivers in this region gradually dry out into separated pools at this time of year; and (2) monthly variation of human activity along the rivers. Occurrence of Black Storks is inversely proportional to human activity, irrelevant of whether open habitat is available at the location. When human pressure is moderate, open habitats and low tree canopy favour the presence of Black Storks. Conclusion We propose that conservation measures should include the creation of reserves located along perennial rivers, away from areas of human activity.

Diet, Prey Selection, and Predation Impact of Black‐Backed Jackals in South Africa

ABSTRACT To investigate the role of black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) as predators, we studied diet, prey selection, and predation impact of jackals on 2 game ranches in South Africa that differed in ungulate diversity and biomass. Results showed that large (&gt;15 kg) ungulate species dominated jackal diets throughout the year on both the less diverse (range of ingested biomass across seasons = 39–78%) and more diverse (26–69%) game ranch. Other important food items included medium‐sized mammals (1–3 kg; 1–26%) and fruit (2–69%), whereas small mammals comprised 3–11% of ingested biomass across seasons on both sites. Jackals were not random in consumption of ungulates, and consumption patterns suggested jackals actively hunted certain species rather than consumed them as carrion. During ungulate birthing periods, jackals consumed almost exclusively those ungulate species that were hiders (i.e., fawns were hidden in tall vegetation away from herd) regardless of ungulate densities, suggesting that primarily fawns were preyed upon. Among hiders, there was a negative relationship (P = 0.01) between body size and percent of population consumed by jackals, indicating smaller species were more susceptible than larger species to jackal predation. Consequently, springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) were always selected over other ungulate species on both sites, and this species was the most impacted by jackal predation. In contrast, ungulate species that were followers (i.e., fawns immediately followed mothers within protection of the herd) were scarcely or not at all consumed by jackals, regardless of body size or density. Medium‐sized mammals were selectively consumed over ungulates, and there was a negative relationship (P &lt; 0.01) between consumption of berries and ungulates, indicating alternative food resources influenced consumption of ungulates on our study sites. Our results will help wildlife managers in Africa identify ungulate species susceptible to jackal predation, and can be used to develop management strategies for reducing jackal predation in areas where it is problematic.

Sarcoptes mite epidemiology and treatment in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) calves captured for translocation from the Kafue game management area to game ranches

BackgroundIn Zambia, translocation of wildlife from National Parks to private owned game ranches demands that only animals free of infectious diseases that could adversely affect the expansion of the wildlife industry should be translocated to game ranches. Sarcoptes mange (Sarcoptes scarbiei) has been involved in the reduction of wildlife populations in some species.ResultsSarcoptes mange (Sarcoptes scarbiei) was detected and eradicated from two herds of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) calves captured in the Kafue GMA in July 2004 and August 2005. The overall prevalence was estimated at 89.5% (77/86). Sex had no influence on the occurrence and severity of the disease. Of the 86 calves used in the study, 72.1% had good body condition scores, 20.9% were fair and 7.0% were poor. Of the 77 infected calves, 53.2% were mildly infected, 28.6% were moderately and 18.2% were severely infected. Body condition score was correlated to the severity of the infection (r = 0.72, p < 0.000, n = 86) at capture. Eradication of Sarcoptes mites from the entire herd using ivermetcin was dependant on the severity of the infection. The overall ability of ivermectin to clear the infection after the first treatment was estimated at 81.8% (n = 77). It increased to 94.8% and 100% after the second and third treatments respectively.ConclusionThis is the first report on the epidemiology and treatment of Sarcoptes mange in African buffaloes in Zambia. This study improves our understanding about Sarcoptes scabiei epidemiology and treatment which will have further applications for the safe animal translocation.

Trypanosoma brucei Infection in Asymptomatic Greater Kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) on a Game Ranch in Zambia

Trypomastogotes of Trypanosoma brucei were detected from 4 asymptomatic kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) on a game ranch located approximately 45 km north east of Lusaka, Zambia. Blood smears examined from 14 wildlife species comprising of the impala (Aepyceros melampus), Kafue lechwe (kobus leche kafuensis), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), puku (Kobus vardoni), zebra (Equus burchelli), waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), wilderbeest (Connochaetes taurinus), hartebeest (Alcephelus lichtensteini), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) showed that only the kudu had T. brucei. Although game ranching has emerged to be a successful ex-situ conservation strategy aimed at saving the declining wildlife population in the National Parks, our findings suggest that it has the potential of aiding the re-distribution of animal diseases. Hence, there is a need for augmenting wildlife conservation with disease control strategies aimed at reducing the risk of disease transmission between wildlife and domestic animals.

Does Science Serve the Wildlife Industry? A Critique of Von Brandis &amp; Reilly (2008)

Throughout the world, terrestrial mammals are hunted for sport, subsistence and population control, providing a significant source of meat and income to communities (Milner et al. 2007). The game ranching industry in South Africa relies heavily on trophy hunting as a primary source of income (du Toit & van Rooyan 2002), and hence may be subject to manipulation that could increase revenue. The industry is growing rapidly, and steps need to be taken to ensure that this industry is sustainable, and is firmly grounded in science with effective government policy. In a recent article in South African Journal of Wildlife Research, von Brandis & Reilly (2008, hereafter vB&R) claim that significant spatial variation exist in the trophy quality (a function of horn size) of ungulates in South Africa and advocate the importance of a national trophy quality monitoring programme in order to control potential manipulation of trophy populations.

The importance of conservancies for enhancing the value of game ranch land for large mammal conservation in southern Africa

AbstractLegislative changes during recent decades resulted in a massive shift away from livestock towards game ranching in southern Africa, resulting in significant increases in the abundance and distribution of many wildlife species. However, there are problems associated with game ranching from a conservation perspective, including persecution of predators, overstocking, introductions of exotic species and genetic manipulation of ‘huntable’ species. We suggest here that most of these problems could be overcome through promoting the formation of conservancies, where adjacent ranches remove internal fencing to form larger collaborative wildlife areas. Larger areas permit the reintroduction of the full range of indigenous mammals, tending to result in a land‐use shift from high‐offtake, low‐value consumptive utilization towards higher value forms of hunting and ecotourism. Under these land‐use conditions, ranchers tend to be more tolerant of predators and often actively reintroduce them. Freedom of movement for wildlife populations increases resilience to environmental shocks. The collaborative management agreements typical of conservancies tend to align more closely with conservation objectives than on single ranches. Fortuitously, there are financial advantages associated with conservancies: land‐use options in conservancies are more profitable and there are economies of scale associated with cooperative management. Land within conservancies is likely to appreciate in value and attract external investment. In addition, conservancies are more conducive to developing partnerships with indigenous communities and investors and may thus increase the political and social sustainability of game ranching. However, ranchers are fiercely independent and may be resistant to removing fences due to the perception that they may relinquish control over their land and wildlife. Strategies are required to overcome such reluctance and promote the formation of conservancies to enhance the conservation value of game ranch land.

Portfolio selection theory and wildlife management

With a strong commercial incentive driving the increase in game ranching in Southern Africa the need has come for more advanced management tools. In this paper the potential of Portfolio Selection Theory to determine the optimal mix of species on game ranches is explored. Land, or the food it produces, is a resource available to invest. We consider species as investment choices. Each species has its own return and risk profile. The question arises as to what proportion of the resource available should be invested in each species. We show that if the objective is to minimise risk for a given return, then the problem is analogous to the Portfolio Selection Problem. The method is then implemented for a typical game ranch. We show that besides risk and return objectives, it is necessary to include an additional objective so as to ensure sufficient species to maintain the character of a game ranch. Some other points of difference from the classical Portfolio Selection problem are also highlighted and discussed.

“Wilding the farm or farming the wild”? The evolution of scientific game ranching in South Africa from the 1960s to the present

This article analyses in some detail the scientific developments relating to extensive game ranching for meat production in South Africa from the 1960s onwards. Initially it recalls how game was utilised in South Africa in the nineteenth century and then reflects on the rise of the modern livestock industry and its detrimental effect on the herds of game that survived in the region into the twentieth century. The roles of scientists from different regions—Britain, the United States and South Africa—are identified and their respective scientific contributions to the wildlife industry evaluated. The narrative is situated within the con-text of a rise in environmental consciousness in the mid-twentieth century and the recent challenges that have faced the formal agricultural and pastoral sector in South Africa.

Designing a transfrontier conservation landscape for the Maputaland centre of endemism using biodiversity, economic and threat data

A number of global priority region schemes have been developed, but local assessments are needed to identify priority areas for conservation within these regions. Here, we describe results from a conservation assessment for Maputaland, part of a biodiversity hotspot in southern Africa that is also the focus of the Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA) initiative between South Africa, Mozambique and Swaziland. The TFCA seeks to establish new state-, private- and communally-managed conservation areas to boost economic development through nature-based tourism and game ranching. The assessment will guide the TFCA process and used a systematic conservation planning approach to design a landscape to conserve 44 landcover types, 53 species and 14 ecological processes. The assessment also included data on modelled risk of agricultural transformation, of which low-risk areas were selected where possible. The current PA systems in the three countries cover 3830 km 2, which represents 21.2% of the region, and meet the representation targets for 46% of the conservation features. The proposed conservation landscape adds 4291 km 2 of new core areas and 480 km 2 of linkages and, if appropriate, could provide potential revenues of US$18.8 million from game ranching, based on modelled large ungulate density, life history and game auction data. We also discuss the benefits of including data on widely distributed, better known conservation features together with less-well studied, range-restricted species and the advantages of using agricultural transformation risk data in conservation assessments.

MODELING: A TOOL FOR ENHANCING THE SURVIVAL PROSPECTS OF AFRICAN WILDLIFE

ABSTRACT. In this article we consider the role of modeling in some aspects of the conservation of African wildlife. The first study is concerned with the endangered black rhino. Animals are being translocated from high density areas to new sites in an attempt to build up the South African population as rapidly as possible. We investigate the efficacy of different translocation strategies. Next we discuss a spatial stochastic metapopulation model used to test management strategies to enhance the survival likelihood of the rare samango monkey. The value of the model is to encourage the use of corridor policies even though there may be little apparent observable benefit in a manager's lifetime. Finally, we look at some commercial aspects of exploiting wildlife on a sustainable basis. By increasing the profitability of wildlife enterprises the incentive to conserve is increased. We look at improving the financial returns from game ranches.

Conservation implications of prey responses to wild dogs Lycaon pictus during the denning season on wildlife ranches

AbstractThe spread of game ranching in southern Africa provides opportunities for the reestablishment of populations of endangered wild dogs extirpated by livestock ranchers. However, this potential has not been realized, partly because of negative rancher perceptions. Some ranchers believe that wild dogs impart costs by killing wildlife that could be utilized consumptively. Others complain that wild dogs make ungulates ‘skittish’ and cause local reductions in prey densities while denning. We compared the skittishness and density of prey species inside and outside the denning home ranges of nine wild dog packs in Zimbabwe. Wild dogs had no impact on prey skittishness, but prey species did occur at lower densities inside denning home ranges. In some scenarios, and particularly on fenced game ranches, wild dogs could cause prey population declines during denning. On small game ranches, the use of fences as a tool by wild dogs during hunting can increase the proportion of large prey species in their diet by up to 11 times, and thus increase the minimum area required to support that diet. In addition, game fencing is typically permeable to wild dogs but not their prey, preventing the recovery of prey populations through the natural influx of prey animals into the denning area following departure of the dogs. Wild dogs could thus impose significant financial costs to game ranchers hosting denning packs. Our findings emphasize the importance of promoting the formation of conservancies, where neighbouring landowners remove boundary fences to create larger contiguous wildlife areas.

Density-dependent body condition and recruitment in a tropical ungulate

In tropical areas, annual rainfall and predation have been reported to drive population dynamics of most species of large herbivores studied so far, with little direct empirical evidence for density-dependent responses of life-history traits. We here investigated in a game ranch in Zimbabwe density-dependent responses of body condition and recruitment in an impala ( Aepyceros melampus (Lichtenstein, 1812)) population that underwent an experimental drastic reduction of density within 2 years under similar rainfall and predation pressure. Body condition of all sex and age classes was lower during the high-density year than during the low-density year, suggesting increased competition for restricted resources at high density. In addition, we observed a significant increase in population recruitment (from 0.47 to 0.80 juveniles/female) as population density declined. Our study provides a rare example of a direct density-dependent response of body condition at the individual level in a tropical ungulate species, and indicates that food resource variation controls population dynamics of impala under constant and moderate predation pressure as is commonly reported in temperate populations of large herbivores.

Impact of land use on the biodiversity integrity of the moist sub-biome of the grassland biome, South Africa

South Africa's moist grassland harbours globally significant biodiversity, supplies essential ecosystem services, supports crop and livestock agriculture, forestry and settlement, yet is poorly conserved. Ongoing transformation and limited opportunity for expanding the protected area network require instead that biodiversity conservation is ‘mainstreamed’ within other land uses. This exercise sought to identify the relative compatibility of 10 land uses (conservation, livestock or game ranching, tourism/recreation, rural settlement, dryland cropping, irrigated cropping, dairy farming, plantation forestry, and urban settlement) with maintaining biodiversity integrity. This was assessed using 46 indicators for biodiversity integrity that covered landscape composition, structure, and functioning. Data was integrated into a single measure per land use through application of the analytic hierarchy process, with supporting information gained from interviews with experts. The rank order of importance amongst indicators was landscape structure, functioning and composition. Consistent differences among land uses for all three categories revealed two clear groupings. Conservation, livestock or game ranching had the lowest impact and retained substantial natural asset, while that for tourism/recreation was intermediate. All other land uses had a severe impact. Impact on biodiversity integrity depended mainly on the extent of transformation and fragmentation, which accounted for the greatest impact on habitats and species, and impairment of landscape functioning. It is suggested that a strategic intervention for maintaining biodiversity integrity of moist grassland is to support livestock or game ranching and limit ongoing urban sprawl.

A Stochastic Budgeting Analysis of Three Alternative Scenarios to Convert from Beef-Cattle Farming to Game Ranching

The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the profitability and financial feasibility of three alternative scenarios to convert from beef-cattle farming to game ranching. The analyses acknowledge the importance of quantifying the probability of failure or success when making investment decisions. Risk is incorporated into a standard net present value analysis using risk simulation. De-trended historical auction prices of live game and on-the-hoof prices of weaner cattle were used to quantify price variability. The stochastic net present value analyses indicate that game ranching is more profitable than cattle farming. Although an investment in a limited number of common game species is financially feasible, the cash flow analysis indicates a decreasing probability of making more money with game when annual cash flows are compared to those generated by means of cattle farming. Both the high-value game species scenarios are financially unfeasible during the first five years. These infeasibilities stem from a high probability of not covering instalments to finance game purchases, the extent to which these instalments are not covered, and the high probability of shortfalls in consecutive years.