Game Department Research Articles

Epidemiology of wilderness search and rescue in New Hampshire, 1999-2001.

To describe the epidemiology of wilderness search and rescue in a region with easily accessible, heavily used wilderness areas. We conducted a retrospective review of New Hampshire Fish and Game Department wilderness search-and-rescue reports between January 1999 and December 2001. The study group consisted of all the subjects of the New Hampshire Fish and Game Department search and rescue in the state of New Hampshire during the study period. Demographics, types of incidents, type and location of injuries, environmental factors, fatalities, and use of medical services for all the subjects were analyzed. Three hundred twenty-one incidents involving 457 subjects were analyzed. The mean age of the subjects in the incidents was 35.6 years, with 64.5% men and 35.4% women; 73% of the subjects resided in New Hampshire and Massachusetts. At the time of the incident, 57.3% of the subjects were hiking. Injuries precipitated 39.3% of the rescues, whereas lost and missing persons accounted for 41.4%. Fractures accounted for 33.7% of the reported injuries; 49.7% of the injuries were to the lower extremities. Sixty-four of the subjects (14%) died; 32.8% drowned, and 23.4% died from cardiac events. Volunteers were used in 53.3% of the rescues, a rescuer was injured in 2.5% of the incidents, and at least 36.4% of the subjects were transported to a hospital. The most prevalent demographic group requiring search-and-rescue efforts in New Hampshire was men aged 30 to 40 years who were hiking and who resided within a 4-hour drive of the area where they encountered difficulty. To decrease the number of people involved in most search and rescue, efforts should be focused on preventing wilderness users from getting lost and preventing lower extremity musculoskeletal injuries. Wilderness deaths may be prevented by focusing attention on cardiac health in wilderness users older than 50 years and on water safety.

Findings Abstract

This study evaluated the image of North Dakota's Game and Fish Department (NDGFD) from the perspective of: (1) North Dakota residents, (2) NDGFD employees, and (3) the NDGFD employees’ predictions of the public's responses. Reactions of the general public were obtained from a pilot study (Wildlife Values in the West) involving six states (Teel, Bright, & Manfredo, 2003). The larger survey included questions of regional interest as well as state-specific items. North Dakota's state-specific questions focused on five customer-oriented items: (1) What do our customers think of us? (2) What is important to our customers? (3) What do our customers want? (4) What are our customers’ attitudes towards access issues? and (5) Who are our customers? (Gigliotti, 2003). Results in the report differentiate anglers and hunters in the public survey

Evaluation of the North Dakota Game and Fish Department Using a Communications Assessment Model

Evaluation of the North Dakota Game and Fish Department Using a Communications Assessment Model

EFFECTS OF SALMON-DERIVED NITROGEN ON RIPARIAN FOREST GROWTH AND IMPLICATIONS FOR STREAM PRODUCTIVITY: COMMENT

EcologyVolume 84, Issue 12 p. 3396-3399 Comment EFFECTS OF SALMON-DERIVED NITROGEN ON RIPARIAN FOREST GROWTH AND IMPLICATIONS FOR STREAM PRODUCTIVITY: COMMENT Matthew D. Kirchhoff, Matthew D. Kirchhoff Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Wildlife Conservation, P.O. Box 240020, Douglas, Alaska, USA 99824. E-mail: Mattdk@fishgame.state.ak.usSearch for more papers by this author Matthew D. Kirchhoff, Matthew D. Kirchhoff Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Wildlife Conservation, P.O. Box 240020, Douglas, Alaska, USA 99824. E-mail: Mattdk@fishgame.state.ak.usSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 December 2003 https://doi.org/10.1890/02-3121Citations: 8 Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume84, Issue12December 2003Pages 3396-3399 RelatedInformation

Integrating Conservation Genetic Considerations into Conservation Planning

Abstract Bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) is a species of conservation concern–listed as “threatened” under the Endangered Species Act–throughout its native range in the western United States. The authors were assembled by the Clark Fork River Aquatic Implementation Team, composed of biologists representing Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (MFWP); Idaho Department of Fish and Game (IDFG); and Avista Corporation, to provide a conservation genetics perspective and to assist those managers charged with stewardship of the bull trout populations occupying the Lake Pend Oreille (ID)–Iower Clark Fork River (ID, MT) drainage. More specifically, we were asked to assess the risks to bull trout from alternative conservation strategies and to recommend a plan of action aimed at promoting the species' long-term viability and functional recovery. We describe here a case study of one application of the expert advisory panel approach within the context of a restoration program and of the underlying perspectives this p...

155 Mapping Floating Kelp Beds in Alaska With Remote Sensing

The commercial harvest of floating kelps has promise as a business opportunity that could be especially valuable for small communities in southeast Alaska. The giant kelp, Macrocystis, is harvested mainly for the commercial herring roe‐on‐kelp harvest in Alaska. In addition, in southeast Alaska the two other species of floating kelps, Nereocystis luetkeana and Alaria fistulosa, have been commercially harvested since 1992 for use as agrochemicals by the Alaska KelpCo. The continued existence of this company and others that may wish to harvest seaweeds on a commercial basis is threatened by the lack of a kelp harvest management system in Alaska. The objective of this research is to develop a reliable and cost effective method for estimating the aerial extent and the standing crop biomass of the floating kelps in SE Alaska. We are employing an aerial multispectral imaging system that can be flown at varying altitudes to achieve spatial resolutions ranging from 0.5 to 2 meters. We are investigating whether the three species have unique spectral or textural characteristics in the multispectral imagery that can be used to differentiate the populations. The end products for this project will be kelp resource maps that delineate the spatial extent and biomass of kelp populations within the beds and a methodology for assessing kelp beds with mixed species composition. These products will find use by resource managers such as the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and the Department of Natural Resources.

Integrating Trustee Issues into a Balanced Response: Working Toward a Common Goal1

ABSTRACT In February 2002, a Unified Command (UC) comprised of the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the California Department of Fish and Game's Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR), and other state and federal agencies tested a sample of oil taken from the water near the wreck SS Jacob Luckenbach. Oil from this fifty-year-old wreck, submerged in 176 feet of water 17 miles off San Francisco, matched oil that had impacted thousands of birds and miles of shoreline since November 2001. It also matched oil from mystery spills in this area dating back to 1992. Now that the source of this extensive pollution was found, the next step seemed simple: remove the oil from the vessel. Yet there were many issues surrounding this vessel and its location that required significant cooperation with many agencies and trustees. The Luckenbach is an historic property, protected by the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA). It is submerged in the Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary - one of the most biologically productive regions off the California coast and home to many sensitive resources including several listed species. The UC realized that dialogue with and among the natural resource trustee agencies was crucial to planning balanced operations that would remove the pollution source while providing the utmost protection available to the resources at risk A task force was formed that allowed trustees to engage in discussions about the tradeoffs of initiating removal as quickly as possible while balancing the risk of harm that any incidental release during operations may cause to their resources of concern. One of the most exciting benefits of this cooperative effort was the shift in thinking beyond just responding to the incident to advanced planning of a response that would best enhance restoration and long-term recovery. In many responses, it is not always clear that everyone has the same priorities: the USCG may focus on recovering oil and mitigating damage, the responsible party wants to minimize costs, and the trustees want to protect and restore their resources. In this case, the trustees and USCG were clearly working together toward common goals: removing a source of chronic oil pollution while minimizing environmental impacts from the response.

The SS Jacob Luckenbach: Integration of NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) Trust Issues into the Response1

ABSTRACT Since at least 1992, state and federal trustees have struggled to deal with episodic “mystery” spills that have impacted thousands of seabirds and compromised hundreds of miles of California coastline. In November 2001, another of these mystery events spurred the United States Coast Guard (USCG), state, and federal trustees to initiate a cooperative response and investigation. As impacts from the same oil type continued into January, it soon became evident that this oil most probably stemmed from a submerged source and not transient vessels. By February 2002, a source was identified for this and many of the previous mystery spills —the 1953 wreck of the cargo ship SS Jacob Luckenbach, fully fuelled and laden with materials for the Korean War effort. The vessel now sits in 176 feet of water, 17 miles off San Francisco Bay in the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary. The Luckenbach itself is an historic resource, protected by the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) 16 U.S.C.470 et seq and the National Marine Sanctuary Act (NMSA) 16 U.S.C. 1431 et seq. as amended by Public Law 106–513. The wreck rests in one of the most biologically productive regions of California, home to countless sensitive resources including several listed species, and is within a series of marine protected areas. The Unified Command (UC) comprised of USCG, California Department of Fish and Game's Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) and other state and federal agencies, were faced with an unusual set of challenges. First, finding accurate historical information about the vessel and its cargo, determining liability, and coordinating salvage and recovery operations complicated by both historical and ecological trustee issues during the Sanctuary's most biologically active and sensitive season. NOAA's National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) played a particularly strong role in this response. Linked closely to the UC through NOAA's Scientific Support Coordinator, NMSP provided invaluable support in determining possible sources - engaged knowledgeable local divers in the process, located key historical documentation about the wreck, tracked down original owners and hull insurers, and assisted in the coordination of input from all trustees. Closely integrated coordination was a key factor in preparing for and determining the outcome of this response.

POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF THE BLACK TOAD, BUFO EXSUL

The black toad, Bufo exsul, has one of the most restricted ranges of all anuran amphibians. Its habitat is located almost entirely on land owned by Deep Springs College within Deep Springs Valley, Inyo County, California. Although abundant within its habitat, it is listed as threatened by the California Department of Fish and Game, primarily because of the small size of its range. Many aspects of its natural history remain unknown, making scientifically based conservation difficult. Potential threats to the black toad population might include the unquantified effects of cattle grazing, well-intentioned but non-scientifically based conservation efforts, changes in water availability, and other factors that have been implicated in the decline of amphibians worldwide. A census performed in part of the range of the toad in 1978 estimated a population size of 7,897 to 9,744 toads. We censused this population in 1999 and estimated 8,419 toads, with a 95% confidence interval of 5,624 to 16,740. The current population size is consistent with previous studies; however, continued monitoring is required to detect future changes. We summarize observations on changes in the sex ratios, average body size, and habitat conditions, and we recommend future research that might effectively guide conservation efforts.

Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV) in Alaskan Sockeye Salmon Culture from 1973 to 2000: Annual Virus Prevalences and Titers in Broodstocks Compared with Juvenile Losses

Abstract During the early 1970s, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game implemented a program to produce sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka for several statewide enhancement projects. Large-scale hatchery production of juvenile fish was very successful after initiation of the department's Sockeye Salmon Culture Policy (SSCP) in 1981 to control losses from infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV). The prevalences of IHNV and percentages of virus-positive broodstock with high titers varied yearly but generally were correlated. Higher percentage losses of juvenile hatchery fish from IHNV occurred when virus levels were high in the parent broodstocks and when SSCP criteria were compromised. During 1980–1988, the total virus prevalences and percentages of fish with high titers were significantly greater in postspawned than in spawning fish. During 1993–1999, the total percentage losses of juvenile sockeye salmon from IHNV were found to be significantly higher for fish larger than 1 g due to the greater nu...

MORTALITIES FROM CLIMBING ACCIDENTS OF TRANSLOCATED BIGHORN SHEEP IN ARIZONA

Abstract Desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) are known for their climbing skills in rugged and steep terrain. Occasionally sheep die from climbing accidents. Between 1979 and 1995, the Arizona Game and Fish Department reintroduced desert bighorn sheep to areas within their historic distribution: northwest, southwest, southeast, and central Arizona. Because at least half of reintroduced sheep (n = 412) were fitted with radiocollars and monitored monthly, we documented mortalities by climbing accidents. None of 54 mortalities in the southeastern region and 53 mortalities in the southwestern region was identified as climbing accidents. However, climbing accidents caused 5 of 42 sheep mortalities in the northwestern region and 4 out of 54 mortalities in the central region. Most climbing accidents (7 out of 9) happened <9 months after sheep were translocated. Our data suggest that translocated desert bighorn sheep can be vulnerable to climbing accidents due to lack of familiarity with local terrain. Differe...

Volunteer Watershed Health Monitoring by Local Stakeholders: New Mexico Watershed Watch

Volunteers monitor watershed health in more than 700 programs in the US, involving over 400,000 local stakeholders. New Mexico Watershed Watch is a student-based watershed monitoring program sponsored by the state's Department of Game and Fish which provides high school teachers and students with instruction on methods for water quality monitoring, riparian habitat evaluation and watershed planning. Schools monitor small watersheds, assessing watershed health and water quality with an interdisciplinary approach that identifies impacts of land use. Students learn scientifically credible field methodologies to create long term databases on watershed health for use by state and federal agencies. Maps of land use, land ownership, soil stability, topography and human impacts are used in an overlay format to identify priority problem areas. Watershed plans are formulated to improve water quality and restore degraded riparian and upland sites.

Analysis of diazinon monitoring data from the Sacramento and Feather River watersheds: 1991-2001.

The objectives of this study were to: (1) analyze historical diazinon water column monitoring data from inconsistent monitoring programs in mainstem and tributary sites in the Sacramento and Feather River watersheds from 1991 to 2001 to assess possible spatial and temporal trends and (2) determine the probability of measured diazinon concentrations by site or similar pooled sites exceeding various proposed effects benchmarks such as Water Quality Criteria and 10th centiles derived from species sensitivity distributions proposed as target concentrations for Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). An analysis of diazinon monitoring data from both fixed and rain event sampling from the Sacramento/Feather River watersheds from 1991 to 2001 showed that 90th centiles for 27 different mainstem and tributary sites ranged from 12 to 14,897 ng L(-1). The 90th centiles were generally higher at tributary sites (as compared to mainstem sites) during rain event sampling prior to 1995. A comparison of rain event samples for similar sites sampled in 1994 and 2000 showed that 90th centiles were lower in seven of eight sites in 2000. A comparison of pooled mainstem sites between 1994 and 2000 for rain event data showed a lower 90th centile value for 2000; 90th centiles were also lower in 2000 at all pooled tributary sites and all sites when data from a highly influential site was removed. For various site designations (all sites, pooled mainstem sites etc.) the probability of exceeding the acute and chronic diazinon targets developed by California Department of Fish and Game decreased from 1994 to 2000. These data clearly show progress in the 6 yr period in reducing environmental concentrations of diazinon. Probability of exceeding the 10th centile targets based on species sensitivity distributions for arthropods (the most sensitive taxa to diazinon exposure) was similar and fairly low between years; the highest percent probability of exceedance for any site designation was 20%. Results from a two-way ANOVA using individual measurements from all sites sampled showed a significant decrease during rain events between 1994 and 2000, although the decrease was not equivalent for all sites. Sources of uncertainty identified in the analysis of rain event data from 1994 and 2000 were inconsistent frequency of sampling during rain events for each year, unknown definition of rain events between the two years and non-defined measurement point within the hydrograph of rain events sampled in each year. Analysis of diazinon trends from fixed sampling was limited due to lack of yearly data by site; therefore, only parametric analysis could be conducted. Based on parametric analysis of diazinon monitoring data from fixed sampling sites, the percent detected concentrations were greater than 20% for 12 tributary sites and 5 mainstem sites from samples collected during January-March. On the average over all sites and months, diazinon concentrations have decreased at fixed sampling sites in the Sacramento/Feather River watershed from 1991 to 2001.

John Hilary Seebeck 1939 - 2003. An obituary by Peter Menkhorst (with assistance from Ian Mansergh, Ian Temby and Robert Warneke)

WITH the passing of John Seebeck on 8 September 2003, Victoria lost a true champion of nature conservation. Born on 28 September 1939, John grew up in Northcote, Melbourne, and attended local State schools. He joined the fledgling Wildlife Research Section of the Fisheries and Game Department in 1960 as a technical assistant. The following year, John received a Government studentship allowing him to study part-time for a B.Sc. at The University of Melbourne. On returning to full-time employment, John worked assiduously with Keith Dempster, Robert Warneke and others to build the Wildlife Research Section into a springboard for better conservation in Victoria.

Success of hatchery-reared juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) following release in the Kootenai River, Idaho, USA

Journal of Applied IchthyologyVolume 18, Issue 4-6 p. 642-650 Success of hatchery-reared juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) following release in the Kootenai River, Idaho, USA S. C. Ireland, S. C. Ireland Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorR. C. P. Beamesderfer, R. C. P. Beamesderfer Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorV. L. Paragamian, V. L. Paragamian Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorV. D. Wakkinen, V. D. Wakkinen Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorJ. T. Siple, J. T. Siple Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this author S. C. Ireland, S. C. Ireland Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorR. C. P. Beamesderfer, R. C. P. Beamesderfer Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorV. L. Paragamian, V. L. Paragamian Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorV. D. Wakkinen, V. D. Wakkinen Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this authorJ. T. Siple, J. T. Siple Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Bonners Ferry, ID, USA; S. P. Cramer and Associates, Inc., Sandy, OR, USA; Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Coeur d'Alene, ID, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 17 December 2002 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0426.2002.00364.xCitations: 69AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume18, Issue4-6December 2002Pages 642-650 RelatedInformation

Naturalist’s Big Bend: An Introduction to the Trees and Shrubs, Wildflowers, Cacti, Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Fish, and Insects. Louise Lindsey Merrick Natural Environmental Series, Volume 33. By Roland H Wauer and, Carl M Fleming. College Station (Texas): Texas A&amp;M University Press. $29.95 (hardcover); $15.95 (paper). x + 185 p + 8 pl; ill.; index. ISBN: 1–58544–155–4 (hc); 1–58544–156–2

Previous articleNext article No AccessEnvironmental SciencesNaturalist’s Big Bend: An Introduction to the Trees and Shrubs, Wildflowers, Cacti, Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Fish, and Insects. Louise Lindsey Merrick Natural Environmental Series, Volume 33. By Roland H Wauer and, Carl M Fleming. College Station (Texas): Texas A&M University Press. $29.95 (hardcover); $15.95 (paper). x + 185 p + 8 pl; ill.; index. ISBN: 1–58544–155–4 (hc); 1–58544–156–2 (pb). 2002.James N StuartJames N StuartConservation Services, New Mexico Department of Game & Fish, Santa Fe, New Mexico Search for more articles by this author Conservation Services, New Mexico Department of Game & Fish, Santa Fe, New MexicoPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The Quarterly Review of Biology Volume 77, Number 4December 2002 Published in association with Stony Brook University Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/374514 Views: 1Total views on this site PDF download Crossref reports no articles citing this article.

Evaluation of a 23-cm Minimum Length Limit for Black and White Crappies in a Small South Dakota Impoundment

Abstract The South Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks instituted a 23-cm minimum length limit for black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus and white crappie P. annularis in Lake Alvin on 1 January 1996 because an undesirable size and age structure indicated that these populations were being overharvested. Crappies were sampled annually using trap (modified fyke) nets from 1992 to 1999. Mean catch per unit effort (fish/net night) was higher in the postregulation years (1996–1999) than in the preregulation years (1992–1995) for both species. The mean length of age-3 fish in the postregulation years was not different from that of the 1995 baseline for either species. The relative stock density of 23-cm crappies did not increase after implementation of the length limit. Limited prey availability, which was inferred from the negative trend of relative weight with respect to length, was the likely reason that larger crappies did not appear. The 23-cm minimum length limit was removed on 1 January 2000 to giv...

Interactions between Predators and Mt. Graham Red Squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus grahamensis)

Predation in populations of small mammals is a rarely observed event (Pearson, 1985); however, the role of predators in population regulation often is considered to be important. Documentation and assessment of mortality factors are especially critical when considering the population dynamics of threatened or endangered species. Herein, we document interactions of the endangered Mt. Graham red squirrel with potential predators. The Mt. Graham red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus grahamensis) is an isolated subspecies found only on the highest peaks of the Pinalefio Mountains, Graham Co., Arizona (Hoffmeister, 1986). The squirrel is slightly smaller in body size and has a slightly narrower skull (United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993) than other red squirrels found in North America. Genetic evidence also supports the distinctiveness of this geographically isolated subspecies (Sullivan and Yates, 1994). The squirrel was reported to be extinct in the 1960s (Minckley, 1968) but was rediscovered in 1972 (Spicer et al., 1985) and listed as endangered in 1987. In fall 2000, the total population of the Mount Graham red squirrel was estimated at approximately 470 individuals (T. Snow, Arizona Department of Game and Fish, pers. comm.). Mount Graham red squirrels inhabit sprucefir and mixed conifer forests (United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993). Red squirrels larderhoard seed cones into piles known as middens, typically near the center of their territory (Steele, 1998). Preferred midden locations include areas of thick foliage, dense canopies, and high stem densities (Smith and Mannan, 1994). Depending on season and availability, the squirrels feed mainly on conifer seeds, fungi, bone, and conifer twigs (Coronado National Forest, 1988). Nest sites typically are located in large decaying snags (Froehlich and Smith, 1990). Our monitored area, approximately 250 ha, incorporates both mixed conifer forest dominated by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), corkbark fir (Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica) and southwestern white pine (Pinus strobiformis) and sprucefir forest composed principally of Englemann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and corkbark fir. During the course of other investigations (Young, 1994), observations of potential predators were recorded nearly monthly from 1989 until 1996 and quarterly thereafter. A minimum of 41,000 h of field observation, including 3,269 h of focal animal observations, was expended. Eighty-three observations of predators were made during monitoring periods (Table 1). Eight species of potential predators (6 avian, 2 mammalian) were observed. Five predation attempts, 1 successful and 4 unsuccessful, were recorded. Evidence of 6 possible predation attempts was documented and 5 potential predator species were observed in or near middens but did not attempt predation. On 19 October 1989, 2 juvenile red squirrels (presumed siblings) chased each other as a Mexican spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida) unsuccessfully attacked at 1354 h MST. After 1 min the squirrel chase resumed and the owl looked on from a perch 15 m away. Eight min later the owl made a second, and this time successful, attempt. Carrying the squirrel by the neck, the owl flew 30 m east, perched in a tree for a few minutes and then left the area. Im-

Hybridization and Introgression in a Managed, Native Population of Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout: Genetic Detection and Management Implications

Since the mid-1920s, the Idaho Department of Fish and Game has cultured Yellowstone cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri at Henrys Lake to offset declines in natural production and for use in stocking programs throughout Idaho. Since the mid-1970s, they have also produced F1 hybrids: female Yellowstone cutthroat trout × male rainbow trout O. mykiss. The ability of fishery managers, when selecting broodstock, to visually distinguish returning cutthroat trout from F1 hybrids is, therefore, crucial to avoid accidental introduction of rainbow trout genes into the hatchery-supplemented cutthroat trout population. To evaluate this ability, fish identified by staff as putative cutthroat trout or hybrids (an array of phenotypic characters are used), were sampled during two spawning seasons. Phenotypically identified fish were genetically tested using species-specific restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA gene loci and diagnostic allozyme loci. Current levels of rainbow trout introgression in the cutthroat trout population at Henrys Lake were also investigated by analyzing samples collected from the lake and several of its tributaries. Results indicated that staff's phenotypic identifications were highly accurate in distinguishing cutthroat trout from F1 hybrids when selecting broodstock (no F1 hybrids were detected among 80 samples identified as pure). However, backcrosses of F1 hybrids were identified in random collections of adults from the lake as well as fry from Henrys Lake tributaries, indicating introgression. Present levels of rainbow trout introgression are most likely the product of past rainbow trout introductions and limited, intermittent spawning of hatchery-produced F1 hybrids with wild Yellowstone cutthroat, rather than the accidental crossing of F1 hybrids with cutthroat trout at the hatchery. Current levels of introgression are inadvertently maintained by (1) the inability of managers to phenotypically identify and exclude as broodstock individuals with low levels of rainbow trout introgression and (2) the limited, intermittent reproductive success of straying, hatchery-produced F1 hybrids.

The Postwar Conservation Boom in British Colonial Africa

As World War II came to a close, there was neither any national park legislation nor any national department in British East and Central Africa (comprising Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland). Not all of colonial territories in region even had a game department. The existing departments were minute in relation to size of their territories and none possessed any sort of research agenda or scientifically trained staff member. Fifteen years later, situation had shifted 18o degrees. Colonial development funds poured into improvement of new national across region, airplanes crisscrossed skies overhead to count wildlife herds, and scores of biologists and ecologists moved over landscape to analyze habits and histories of parks faunal residents. The shift represented a veritable conservation boom and dozens of new appeared as bright green patches on previously monochrome maps. What had happened in immediate postwar years to change status of national and wildlife conservation so dramatically? Some historians have traced origins of twentieth-century wildlife conservation to psychological and emotional importance of African environment for European colonizers. Accordingly roots of British colonial national park and wildlife laws have been traced to culturally constructed ideas of nature in Africa. Historians have offered concepts such as the Eden complex or the cult of Hunt' to explain European, particularly British, fascination with African wildlife and anxieties over its disappearance. The core of their argument is that idea of Africa as symbolic Eden has stimulated western interests in African conservation through colonial period and into present. Without dismissing their importance in shaping British attitudes toward nature in Africa, elite European cultural values do not fully explain explosion in conservation initiatives in final years of colonialism. There had been many proposals for national in first half of century and an international wildlife treaty as early as 1900, but territorial governments in Africa largely ignored these until 1940s.