Gambling-related Cognitions Research Articles

Gratitude, Hope, Mindfulness and Personal-Growth Initiative: Buffers or Risk Factors for Problem Gambling?

The majority of prevention and intervention research in problem gambling (PG) has focused on identifying negative risk factors. However, not all at-risk individuals go on to develop anticipated disorders and many thrive in spite of them. In healthcare settings, PG and other disorders are typically conceptualized from the biomedical perspective that frame disorders as something negative residing within the individual and reduction in negativity is seen as success. Indeed, this problem-focused conceptualization may be adequate in many cases as reducing PG behaviour is undoubtedly an important outcome, but the focus on negativity alone is too narrow to capture the complexity of human behaviour. Hence, this study attempts to bridge the gap in literature by providing an evaluation of the predictive ability of the positive dispositions on problem gambling severity, gambling-related cognitions, and gambling urges. The positive psychological dispositions examined were curiosity, gratitude, hope, personal growth initiative, and mindfulness. Participants consisted of 801 Taiwanese Chinese students and community individuals (Mean age = 25.36 years). Higher levels of gratitude and hope have been found to predict lower PG, gambling-related cognitions, or gambling urges. Meanwhile, higher mindfulness predicted lower PG, but only among Chinese males. However, lower personal growth initiative predicted lower PG, gambling-related cognitions, and gambling urges. These analyses have small to medium effect sizes with significant predictions. Findings of this study have essential implications in understanding and treating Chinese problem gamblers. These positive dispositions should be addressed by mental health professionals in preventative and treatment programs among Chinese individuals. Further implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

A comparison of university student and community gamblers: Motivations, impulsivity, and gambling cognitions.

Background and aims: The present study tested whether the associations among motivational, cognitive, and personality correlates of problem gambling severity differed across university student gamblers (n = 123) and gamblers in the general adult community (n = 113). Methods: The participants completed a survey that included standardized measures of gambling motivation, gambling related cognitions, and impulsivity. The survey also asked participants to report the forms of gambling in which they engaged to test whether gambling involvement (number of different forms of gambling) was related to problem gambling severity. After completing the survey, participants played roulette online to examine whether betting patterns adhered to the gambler’s fallacy. Results: Gambling involvement was significantly related to problem gambling severity for the community sample but not for the student sample. A logistic regression analysis that tested the involvement, motivation, impulsivity and cognitive correlates showed that money motivation and gambling related cognitions were the only significant independent predictors of gambling severity. Adherence to the gambler’s fallacy was stronger for students than for the community sample, and was associated with gambling related cognitions. Discussion: The motivational, impulsivity and cognitive, and correlates of problem gambling function similarly in university student gamblers and in gamblers from the general adult community. Interventions for both groups should focus on the financial and cognitive supports of problem gambling.

Do pokers players know how good they are? Accuracy of poker skill estimation in online and offline players

This study was a collaborative investigation between the disciplines of computing and social sciences to determine whether poker players accurately assess their relative skill level. Of particular interest was whether online poker players exhibit higher degrees of distorted thinking about skill when compared to offline gamblers, in the absence of superior proficiency. Two hundred and seventy-eight gamblers played a simulated game of Texas Hold’em poker against a computer controlled opponent. The computer program has been used in artificial intelligence simulated games against actual poker players and can mathematically estimate skill. Information was collected about player demographics, poker experience, cognitive distortions, and subjective perception of poker skills. The results of study revealed that online gamblers had a greater perception of perceived skill when compared to offline gamblers, despite showing no superiority in poker ability. General gamblingrelated cognitions and subjective rating of poker skill contributed to categorization as an online gambler. Gambling more frequently in offline formats and playing for longer periods significantly influenced the perception of poker skill for online gamblers. From a treatment perspective, it is more difficult to address games like poker because the chance component is equivocal and interpretive biases may be especially difficult to combat.

Adaptation Study of the Turkish Version of the Gambling-Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS-T)

This study aimed to adapt and to test the validity and the reliability of the Turkish version of the Gambling-Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS-T) that was developed by Raylu and Oei (Addiction 99(6):757-769, 2004a). The significance of erroneous cognitions in the development and the maintenance of gambling problems, the importance of promoting gambling research in different cultures, and the limited information about the gambling individuals in Turkey due to limited gambling research interest inspired the present study. The sample consisted of 354 voluntary male participants who were above age 17 and betting on sports and horse races selected through convenience sampling in betting terminals. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis following the original scale's five factor structure indicated a good fit for the data. The analyses were carried out with 21 items due to relatively inadequate psychometric properties of two GRCS-T items. Correlational analyses and group comparison tests supported the concurrent and the criterion validity of the GRCS-T. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the whole scale was 0.84 whereas the coefficients ranged between 0.52 and 0.78 for the subscales of GRCS-T. The findings suggesting that GRCS-T is a valid and reliable instrument to identify gambling cognitions in Turkish samples are discussed considering the possible influence of the sample make-up and cultural texture within the limitations of the present study and in the light of the relevant literature.

Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale in Chinese mainland sample

The English items of Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS) were first developed and validated by community-based population in 2004. The scale is now becoming a validated and reliable instrument to assess gambling related cognitions in the gambling literature of the West. The present study recruited 730 general adult Chinese individuals to validate the Chinese version of Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS-C). The results of a confirmatory factor analysis of the Chinese data supported the second-order model with five major factors proposed by Oei and Raylu (2006). The overall scale and five factors demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency and test–retest reliability. Construct validity and concurrent validity of GRCS-C was also sound suggesting that the GRCS-C is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing gambling related cognition among non-clinical Chinese individuals.

Are Gambling Related Cognitions in Adolescence Multidimensional?: Factor Structure of the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale

The present study examined the factor structure of the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS); (Raylu and Oei in Addiction 99:757-769, 2004) in a large sample of adolescents (N = 1,490) between the ages of 16 and 18 years (630 males, 860 females) attending several high schools in central Ontario. Problem gambling was measured using the DSM-IV-J (Fisher in J Gambl Stud 8:263-285, 1992). A 5-factor GRCS model was found to have the best fit to the data, and gambling-related cognitions were found to be powerful predictors of disordered gambling among adolescents. However, strong associations among GRCS subscales, as well as the small amount of variance in problem gambling accounted for by specific GRCS subscales, call into question the multidimensionality of the GRCS when used with adolescents.

Cognitive Distortions, Anxiety, and Depression Among Regular and Pathological Gambling Online Poker Players

The aims were to assess cognitive distortions and psychological distress (anxiety and depression) among online poker players of different levels of gambling intensity (non-pathological gamblers [NPG], problem gamblers [PbG], and pathological gamblers [PG]), and to examine the relationship between these variables and gambling pathology. Overall, 245 regular online poker players recruited on an Internet forum completed online self-report scales assessing pathological gambling (South Oaks Gambling Screen [SOGS]), psychological distress (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [HADS]) and cognitive distortions (Gambling-Related Cognition Scale). Based on their SOGS scores, poker players were ranked into three groups: NPG (n=146), PbG (n=55), and PG (n=44). All poker players appeared to be more anxious than depressive. PG exhibited higher levels of depression and anxiety than did PbG and NPG. Cognitive distortions also significantly discriminated PG from PbG and NPG. A regression model showed that the perceived inability to stop gambling, the illusion of control, depression (HADS D), and anxiety were good predictors for pathological gambling among poker players. Our results suggest that cognitive distortions play an important role in the development and maintenance of gambling pathology. This study also underlines the role of anxiety and depression in pathological gambling among poker players. It seems relevant to take these elements into account in the research, prevention, and treatment of pathological gambling poker players.

Psychometric evaluation of the inventory of Gambling Motives, Attitudes and Behaviours (GMAB) among Chinese gamblers

The present study aims to evaluate and refine the Inventory of Gambling Motives, Attitudes and Behaviours (GMAB) specifically designed to assess gambling-related cognitions and behaviours of Chinese gamblers with a random sample of 697 Chinese adults in Macao who were interviewed by telephone. Confirmatory factor analysis generally replicated the basic factor structure of the three domains of GMAB although the removal of several items with low factor loading or cross-loading was suggested. Moreover, the findings supported the addition of another motivational subscale, socialization. The revised version has six subscales of motives (self-worth, monetary gains, sensation seeking, boredom alleviation, learning and socialization), four of attitudes (fate and luck, negative consequences of gambling, techniques and superstition), and five of behaviours (impaired control, gambling involvement, arousal reaction, superstitious behaviour and controlled gambling). The psychometric properties of the revised GMAB (GMAB-R) were demonstrated to be satisfactory.

A French adaptation of the Gambling-Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS): a useful tool for assessment of irrational thoughts among gamblers

Irrational thinking might be central in the maintenance of pathological gambling and should therefore be assessed, as other gambling-related cognitions (GRC), before treatment, especially when cognitive-behavioural therapy is proposed. Assessment tools investigating GRC exist but none are in French. Raylu and Oei have developed the Gambling-Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS), consisting of 23 items and a five-factor model. We aimed to determine if the French version of the GRCS had psychometric properties similar to those of the original version. Three hundred seventy-nine undergraduate students and 13 problem/pathological gamblers seeking treatment at the University Hospital of Nantes completed the GRCS. Confirmatory factor analysis, exploratory factor analysis, and multitrait analysis were performed. The French adaptation of the GRCS is a useful instrument for assessing GRC in order to appreciate the severity of pathological gambling, and it has the potential capacity to measure the treatment effect. Other studies are required to confirm test-retest reliability and sensitivity to change.

Cognitive distortions as a problem gambling risk factor in Internet gambling

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of cognitive distortions in Internet gambling. The primary objectives were to determine whether cognitive distortions predict Internet gambling and investigate whether distorted gambling-related cognitions are associated with problem gambling severity among online gamblers. Three hundred and seventy four undergraduate participants (143 online gamblers, 172 males) completed an online questionnaire looking at demographics, play-related variables (duration, frequency and expenditures of play) and cognitive distortions. Variables were entered into a logistic regression model to predict online gambling. Three variables made independent contributions to predicting Internet gambling: male gender, higher frequency of play, and cognitive distortions. A hierarchical linear regression analysis with Internet gamblers revealed that cognitive distortions accounted for a proportion of the variance in problem gambling severity beyond variance accounted for by demographic variables and level of gambling involvement. Results suggest that cognitive distortions are a risk factor in online gambling.

The Gambling Urge Scale: Reliability and validity in a clinical population

The aim of this study was to establish reliability and validity of the Gambling Urge Scale (GUS) in a clinical population of problem gamblers. This cohort study was conducted in South Australia between March 2008 and March 2009. Participants were problem gamblers aged ≥18 years (n = 158) who were seeking treatment from a range of gambling help services. Measures included gambling urge, problem gambling screening, gambling behaviour and problems caused by gambling, such as personal health and relationships. The psychometric properties investigated were internal reliability, criterion-related validity, concurrent validity and construct validity. Results showed high internal consistency for GUS (α = 0.93) and significant item-rest correlations ranging from 0.72 to 0.86. For criterion-related validity, a GUS cut score of three correctly classified 81.13% of participants as problem gambling with sensitivity 84.75% and specificity 76.6%. Concurrent validity was significant with a number of gambling-related symptoms and problems including psychological disturbance, work and social functioning and gambling-related cognitions (p < 0.001). An insignificant correlation was found between gambling urge and sensation seeking traits (p = 0.663). When controlling for gender and age the instrument was shown to have significant predictive properties for different levels of gambling severity (p < 0.001). A principal component analysis for the one component showed an overall explained variance of 75.54%. These findings indicate that GUS is a valid and reliable instrument for problem gambling screening, to measure treatment outcomes and may predict relapse in problem gambling.

Trait gambling cognitions predict near‐miss experiences and persistence in laboratory slot machine gambling

'Near-miss' outcomes (i.e., unsuccessful outcomes close to the jackpot) have been shown to promote gambling persistence. Although there have been recent advances in understanding the neurobiological responses to gambling near-misses, the psychological mechanisms involved in these events remain unclear. The goal of this study was to explore whether trait-related gambling cognitions (e.g., beliefs that certain skills or rituals may help to win in games of chance) influence behavioural and subjective responses during laboratory gambling. Eighty-four individuals, who gambled at least monthly, performed a simplified slot machine task that delivered win, near-miss, and full-miss outcomes across 30 mandatory trials followed by a persistence phase in extinction. Participants completed the Gambling-Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS; Raylu & Oei, 2004), as well as measures of disordered gambling (South Oaks Gambling Screen [SOGS]; Lesieur & Blume, 1987) and social desirability bias (DS-36; Tournois, Mesnil, & Kop, 2000). Skill-oriented gambling cognitions (illusion of control, fostered by internal factors such as reappraisal of losses, or perceived outcome sequences), but not ritual-oriented gambling cognitions (illusion of control fostered by external factors such as luck or superstitions), predicted higher subjective ratings of desire to play after near-miss outcomes. In contrast, perceived lack of self-control predicted persistence on the slot machine task. These data indicate that the motivational impact of near-miss outcomes is related to specific gambling cognitions pertaining to skill acquisition, supporting the idea that gambling near-misses foster the illusion of control.

Impulsivity and cognitive distortions in pathological gamblers attending the UK National Problem Gambling Clinic: a preliminary report.

BackgroundPathological gambling (PG) is a form of behavioural addiction that has been associated with elevated impulsivity and also cognitive distortions in the processing of chance, probability and skill. We sought to assess the relationship between the level of cognitive distortions and state and trait measures of impulsivity in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers.MethodThirty pathological gamblers attending the National Problem Gambling Clinic, the first National Health Service clinic for gambling problems in the UK, were compared with 30 healthy controls in a case-control design. Cognitive distortions were assessed using the Gambling-Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS). Trait impulsivity was assessed using the UPPS-P, which includes scales of urgency, the tendency to be impulsive in positive or negative mood states. Delay discounting rates were taken as a state measure of impulsive choice.ResultsPathological gamblers had elevated impulsivity on several UPPS-P subscales but effect sizes were largest (Cohen's d>1.4) for positive and negative urgency. The pathological gamblers also displayed higher levels of gambling distortions, and elevated preference for immediate rewards, compared to controls. Within the pathological gamblers, there was a strong relationship between the preference for immediate rewards and the level of cognitive distortions (R2=0.41).ConclusionsImpulsive choice in the gamblers was correlated with the level of gambling distortions, and we hypothesize that an impulsive decision-making style may increase the acceptance of erroneous beliefs during gambling play.

Problem Gambling, Gambling Correlates, and Help-Seeking Attitudes in a Chinese Sample: An Empirical Evaluation

There is an increasing consensus that problem gambling (PG) is a serious social issue among the Chinese, but little is known of the factors associated with PG among the Chinese using validated and improved PG measurements. This study examined the patterns of PG and the PG predictive ability of variables such as gambling-related cognitions, gambling urge, depression, anxiety, stress, and help-seeking attitudes among Chinese individuals living in Taiwan. The participants consisted of 801 Taiwanese Chinese student and community individuals (Mean age = 25.36 years). The prevalence of PG (Problem Gambling Severity Index; PGSI) and pathological gambling (South Oaks Gambling Screen; SOGS) are higher in this Taiwanese Chinese sample as compared with past prevalence research. Significant differences were found between PGSI groups (i.e., non-PG, low-risk, moderate-risk, and PG) in socio-demographic variables. Erroneous gambling-related cognitions and overall negative psychological states significantly predicted PG. In addition, interaction effects of gender, mediation effects, and the predictive ability of help-seeking attitudes were discussed. The findings of this study have important implications in the understanding of PG among the Chinese. Gambling-related cognitions and negative psychological states are important factors that should be addressed in intervention programs.

Effects of alcohol and initial gambling outcomes on within-session gambling behavior.

Concurrent drinking and gambling is prevalent among young adults and may increase negative consequences associated with each behavior. The effects of alcohol, initial gambling outcomes, gambling-related cognitions, and impulsivity on gambling behavior were evaluated. Initial gambling outcomes, gambling-related cognitions, and impulsivity were also assessed as potential moderators of the relation between alcohol and gambling behavior. Participants (N = 130) were randomly assigned to receive active placebo or alcohol (0.84 g/kg and 0.76 g/kg for men and women, respectively) and were invited to wager on a simulated slot machine programmed to produce 1 of 3 initial outcomes (win, breakeven, or loss) before beginning a progressive loss schedule. Alcohol consumption was associated with larger average bets and more rapid loss of all available funds, though no evidence was found for predicted main effects and interactions for gambling persistence. The effect of impulsivity was moderated by beverage condition, such that higher levels of impulsivity were associated with larger average bets for participants in the placebo but not the alcohol group. Results have direct implications for individual-focused and public-health interventions.

Outcome expectancies and gambling behavior among urban adolescents.

This project sought to identify adolescent outcome expectancies for gambling and to evaluate their relation to gambling behavior among a sample of urban adolescents. In a preliminary study, 50 outcome expectancies were identified on the basis of a literature review or generated after surveying 35 urban high school students. These expectancies were then administered to 1,076 urban high school students. Rates of at-risk and problem gambling were 14.6% and 12.7%, respectively. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed on randomly selected halves of the sample and identified 5 expectancy domains. In a structural equation model, material gain, negative affect, and positive self-evaluation displayed significant positive relations, and negative social consequences and parent disapproval displayed significant negative relations, to gambling behavior. The model explained 48% of the variance in gambling problems and 58% of the variance in gambling frequency. These results demonstrate the salience of gambling-related cognitions in understanding the gambling behavior among these at-risk youth and suggest that expectancies may be important prevention targets for this population.

Gambling Related Cognitions Mediate the Association Between Thinking Style and Problem Gambling Severity

This study examined the associations among thinking style (rational versus experiential), gambling related cognitions, and problem gambling severity. The participants were 70 female and 41 male regular gamblers who completed the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (Raylu and Oei, Addiction 99:757-769, 2004), the Rational-Experiential Inventory (Pacini and Epstien, J Pers Soc Psychol 76(6):972-987, 1999), and the Problem Gambling Severity Index (Ferris and Wynne, The Canadian problem and gambling index: final report. Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse, Ottawa, 2001). Rational thinking was negatively related to problem gambling severity. Gambling related biases increased with problem gambling severity but the strength of those biases was dampened by rational thought. The patterns by which gambling related cognition mediated the association between thinking style and gambling severity suggest that therapeutic interventions may benefit from a consideration of a gambler's thinking style.

Do Warning Signs on Electronic Gaming Machines Influence Irrational Cognitions?

Electronic gaming machines are popular among problem gamblers; in response, governments have introduced "responsible gaming" legislation incorporating the mandatory display of warning signs on or near electronic gaming machines. These signs are designed to correct irrational and erroneous beliefs through the provision of accurate information on probabilities of winning and the concept of randomness. There is minimal empirical data evaluating the effectiveness of such signs. In this study, 93 undergraduate students were randomly allocated to standard and informative messages displayed on an electronic gaming machine during play in a laboratory setting. Results revealed that a majority of participants incorrectly estimated gambling odds and reported irrational gambling-related cognitions prior to play. In addition, there were no significant between-group differences, and few participants recalled the content of messages or modified their gambling-related cognitions. Signs placed on electronic gaming machines may not modify irrational beliefs or alter gambling behaviour.

Gambling Near-Misses Enhance Motivation to Gamble and Recruit Win-Related Brain Circuitry

Summary“Near-miss” events, where unsuccessful outcomes are proximal to the jackpot, increase gambling propensity and may be associated with the addictiveness of gambling, but little is known about the neurocognitive mechanisms that underlie their potency. Using a simplified slot machine task, we measured behavioral and neural responses to gambling outcomes. Compared to “full-misses,” near-misses were experienced as less pleasant, but increased desire to play. This effect was restricted to trials where the subject had personal control over arranging their gamble. Near-miss outcomes recruited striatal and insula circuitry that also responded to monetary wins; in addition, near-miss-related activity in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex varied as a function of personal control. Insula activity to near-misses correlated with self-report ratings as well as a questionnaire measure of gambling propensity. These data indicate that near-misses invigorate gambling through the anomalous recruitment of reward circuitry, despite the objective lack of monetary reinforcement on these trials.

The Factor Structure of Gambling-Related Cognitions in an Undergraduate University Sample

Gambling is relatively common among university students, but few studies examine factors that contribute to gambling behavior in this cohort. Based on evidence that cognitive distortions may play a role in gambling behavior, this study examined the factor structure of gambling-related cognitive distortions using the Gambler’s Beliefs Questionnaire (GBQ; Steenbergh et al., Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16:143–149, 2002) in a sample of 393 college undergraduates. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test a previously reported two-factor model, comprising dimensions of Illusion of Control (IOC) and Luck/Perseverance (L/P). An oblique, but not orthogonal, two-factor model was confirmed but did not provide an incrementally better fit to the data than a one-factor model. However, multiple regression analyses showed that the L/P scale accounted for significant variance in the criterion when controlling for IOC items. This suggests that IOC items provide redundant information and that gambling-related cognitive distortions in this sample can be adequately assessed using solely the L/P factor.