Future Submarine Research Articles

Toward SDM-Based Submarine Optical Networks: A Review of Their Evolution and Upcoming Trends

Submarine networks have evolved alongside terrestrial ones over the past several decades. Although there are similarities between these two network categories (e.g., the need to cover ultra-long-haul distances and transport huge amounts of data), there are also important differences that have dictated their different evolutionary paths. Space division multiplexing (SDM) promises to be the ultimate solution to cover future capacity needs and overcome problems of both networks. In this work, we review recent and future submarine technologies, focusing on all critical sectors: cable systems, amplifiers’ technology, submarine network architectures, electrical power- feeding issues, economics, and security. Such an analysis, with the level of detail provided in this manuscript, is not available in the literature so far. We first overview all recently announced SDM-based submarine cable systems, compare their performance (capacity-distance product), and analyze the reasons that led to the first SDM submarine deployment. Also, we report up-to-date experimental results of submarine transmission demonstrations and perform a qualitative categorization that relies on their features. Moreover, based on all latest advances and our study findings, we try to predict the future of SDM submarine optical networks mainly in the fields of fiber types, fiber counts per cable, fiber-coating variants, modulation formats, as well as the type and layout structure of optical amplifiers. More specifically, results show that SDM can offer higher capacities (in order of Pb/s) compared to its counterparts, supported by novel network technologies: pump-farming amplification schemes, high counts up to 50 parallel fiber pairs, thinner fiber coating variants (200 μm), and optimum spectral efficiency (2–3 b/s/Hz). Finally, we conclude that tradeoffs between capacity and implementation complexity and cost will have to be carefully considered for future deployments of submarine cable systems.

Using dimpled-pipe surface to reduce submarine landslide impact forces on pipelines at different span heights

The interaction between submarine landslides and pipelines has attracted widespread attention. For a pipeline designer, generalizing practical analysis models, obtaining accurate dynamic forces (i.e., the drag force and lift force), and proposing effective pipeline protection measures are prerequisites for ensuring their safe operation. In this paper, a computational fluid dynamics approach is employed to investigate if a golfball-type dimpled pipeline surface reduces impact forces induced by submarine landslides. Considering technology suspension, geomorphology suspension, environmental erosion suspension and acquired suspension, numerical models are generalized to allow prescribing different pipeline span heights, and are impacted by fluidized homogeneous submarine landslides. For the given Reynolds numbers and span heights, golfball-type dimpled pipelines experience a reduced peak drag force than standard circular pipelines. In addition, the pipeline dimple suppresses the lift force variation and greatly reduces the force amplitude. As a result, pipeline damage could be lessened or even avoided. Also, a methodology for predicting the drag reduction of dimple-surfaced pipelines under various conditions is provided, and the two necessary conditions for the periodic vibration of the lift force are proposed. Finally, the full life cycle of vortices shed from the pipeline and the hydrodynamics during landslides impact on pipelines are revealed providing the needed insights to prevent future submarine pipeline failures.

The Impact of Information Integration in a Simulation of Future Submarine Command and Control.

Examine the extent to which increasing information integration across displays in a simulated submarine command and control room can reduce operator workload, improve operator situation awareness, and improve team performance. In control rooms, the volume and number of sources of information are increasing, with the potential to overwhelm operator cognitive capacity. It is proposed that by distributing information to maximize relevance to each operator role (increasing information integration), it is possible to not only reduce operator workload but also improve situation awareness and team performance. Sixteen teams of six novice participants were trained to work together to combine data from multiple sensor displays to build a tactical picture of surrounding contacts at sea. The extent that data from one display were available to operators at other displays was manipulated (information integration) between teams. Team performance was assessed as the accuracy of the generated tactical picture. Teams built a more accurate tactical picture, and individual team members had better situation awareness and lower workload, when provided with high compared with low information integration. A human-centered design approach to integrating information in command and control settings can result in lower workload, and enhanced situation awareness and team performance. The design of modern command and control rooms, in which operators must fuse increasing volumes of complex data from displays, may benefit from higher information integration based on a human-centered design philosophy, and a fundamental understanding of the cognitive work that is carried out by operators.

Surfacing the social factors early: A sociotechnical approach to the design of a future submarine

Socially oriented approaches to work systems design are increasingly important as new and disruptive technologies become more prevalent. Existing approaches used by organisations to integrate such technologies are often techno-centric and do not adequately consider human issues. Sociotechnical systems (STS) tools are intended to ensure that the technical and organisational aspects of a system are considered together, and given equal attention. However, they are predominately applied late in the design process, limiting their impact. In this article, we outline an STS approach to the early-phase development of a complex work system. The case study illuminates how an STS approach can facilitate the inclusion of socially oriented factors into the design process. We close with recommendations to guide the early-phase application of STS principles in other industries and contexts. JEL Classification: C93, D02

Technical and Policy Lessons for the Domestic Future Nuclear-powered Submarine learned from the U.S. Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program

Technical and Policy Lessons for the Domestic Future Nuclear-powered Submarine learned from the U.S. Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program

Cybersecurity for Allied Future Submarines

Cyber has become a supposedly cheap first-strike weapon of political choice by potential adversaries in a milieu placing insurgency, terrorism, international crime and state-based influences in close un-regulated proximity. The merging of electronic and cyber warfare means that not even submarines, however unconnected or firewalled they may be, are immune. The quantum attack surface of submarines is as much in their past, as they are in their designs today and their operations tomorrow: they must survive to be credible and ideally they should even be a contemporary offensive cyber deterrent. Such critical defensive systems require robust security systems engineering and cybersecurity test and evaluation to build and sustain their cyber-resilience. This paper uses Australia’s future submarine program [1]1 to outline key facets needed in a submarine program to achieve cyber resilience, including how to adapt U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) best practices to engineer, test and sustain cyber-resilient submarine systems. Strategies are needed that provision sovereign-owned and operated land-based test sites to design, build, demonstrate and sustain critical submarine systems. This work is most relevant to countries allied to the U.S. and importing submarine capabilities, such as within lesser European powers and also in the Indo-Pacific where both cyber warfare and submarines are proliferating.

Evaluating Australia's most complex system‐of‐systems, the future submarine: A case for using new Complex Systems Governance

AbstractAs many systems grew in complexity and connected to other existing systems, the concept of Systems of Systems (SoS) was developed to explain the behavior, operation and design of these more complex and inter‐connected systems. Early research recognized the difficulty in classic testing and evaluating (T&E) for these SoS. Much effort has been expended attempting to predict the emergent behaviors in SoSs, developing and executing T&E programs involving more sophisticated multi‐factor and multi‐response statistical techniques, and then recovering when some unpredicted emergent behaviors were discovered despite these efforts. Recently, an emerging concept of Complex System Governance (CSG) has been developed as yet another weapon in the armory for managing development of complex interdependent capability architectures. CSG is based on a firm grounding in System Theory and Management Cybernetics. The potential application of robust CSG structure to reduce or mitigate emergent T&E surprises is proposed in this paper. Using Australia's Future Submarine (FSM) program as an illustration, this paper has examined the need for such an application, examine several of the governance propositions focused on the developmental T&E regime and provided potential areas to leverage the efficacy of this approach to such major development programs.

Australia’s future submarine: shaping early adaptive designs through test and evaluation

The Australian Government selected France’s Direction des Constructions Navales Services to design Australia’s future submarine, the Shortfin Barracuda. This paper evaluates different system developmental approaches that can be applied, such as the U.S. acquisition life cycle and a research, engineer, design, adapt, reflect (RADER) model. The evaluation showed a need for deliberate regard for the significant philosophical, political, military, cultural and economic differences of the French practices compared to U.S., U.K. and Australian. The paper reviews major lessons learned in Australian acquisitions regarding early preview test and evaluation (T&E), including the Collins Class Submarine, and proposes 11 T&E goals, especially early commitment to an estimated seven test sites needed to ensure the early design is proven and low risk. To save substantial overall time and rework, greater investment is needed in the social spaces for critical thinking and T&E to guide the submarine towards a continuously evolving design and build.

Aeromagnetic data provide new insights on the volcanism and tectonics of Vulcano Island and offshore areas (southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy)

The active Vulcano Island (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea) represents the southernmost portion of a NW‐SE elongated volcanic ridge that includes also Lipari and Salina islands. The ridge is affected by a regional, NW‐SE to N‐S striking fault system. The elaboration and analysis of data from three high‐resolution aeromagnetic surveys carried out between 1999 and 2004 on Vulcano and offshore allow us to recognize high intensity magnetic anomalies related to volcanic centers/conduits or shallow intrusions. Previously unreported offshore submarine vents have been also recognized. Some of them may correspond with source areas of outcropping exotic pyroclastics on Vulcano. The spatial analysis of the recognized magnetic anomalies and volcanic structures shows that they are preferably aligned along the strikes of the main regional faults that affect the volcanic ridge. Submarine volcanic conduits revealed by the aeromagnetic survey might represent potential sources for future submarine, effusive or explosive activity.