Filaments For Fused Deposition Modeling Research Articles

Development and characterization of groundnut shell‐derived biocarbon‐reinforced polylactic acid composite filaments for FDM

AbstractBiochar, a carbon‐rich biomass material has emerged as promising reinforcement and offers versatile applications and potential benefits in various fields, especially in fused deposition modeling (FDM). This study focuses on the development and characterization of groundnut shell‐derived biocarbon (GNSC) reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) filaments for FDM. The GNSC was synthesized through pyrolysis using a tubular furnace at temperatures 700, 800, and 900°C. Synthesized carbon was characterized using Raman spectroscopy, XRD, and SEM analysis. The results showed that the synthesized carbon particles were graphitic, spherical, and nanosized with an average diameter of 40 nm. The preferred biocarbon material, GNSC800 was selected for its high carbon content (98.25%) observed through EDX analysis. Composite filaments were produced with different GNSC800 loadings of 0.25%, 0.5%, and 0.75% using solvent casting and extrusion techniques. Thermal stability was evaluated using TGA and DSC, which showed improved properties with the addition of biocarbon. The mechanical properties and electrical conductivity were enhanced with the inclusion of biocarbon. The data were also validated using ANOVA and Tukey's test. Filament with the 0.5 wt% loading showed the most favorable thermomechanical properties exhibiting a 39.8% increase in tensile strength and a 17.5% improvement in tensile modulus.

3D printing with a 3D printed digital material filament for programming functional gradients

Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing attracts growing attention as a promising method for creating functionally graded materials. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is widely available, but due to its simple process, creating spatial gradation of diverse properties using FDM is challenging. Here, we present a 3D printed digital material filament that is structured towards 3D printing of functional gradients, utilizing only a readily available FDM printer and filaments. The DM filament consists of multiple base materials combined with specific concentrations and distributions, which are FDM printed. When the DM filament is supplied to the same printer, its constituent materials are homogeneously blended during extrusion, resulting in the desired properties in the final structure. This enables spatial programming of material properties in extreme variations, including mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and color, which are otherwise impossible to achieve with traditional FDMs. Our approach can be readily adopted to any standard FDM printer, enabling low-cost production of functional gradients.

Melt flow characterization of highly loaded cooper filled poly(acrylonitrile-co-butadiene-co-styrene)

The knowledge of the rheological behavior of hybrid polymer melts is essential to develop fused deposition modeling (FDM) filaments to print metal and ceramic goods. In this contribution, we performed an in-depth analysis of the morphology and the rheological behavior in the linear elastic domain of poly(acrylonitrile-co-butadiene-co-styrene) (ABS) highly filled with copper microparticles functionalized by bioinspired polydopamine, containing polyethylene waxes (PEW) as lubricant agent. The composite systems have potential applicability in manufacturing FDM filaments for the 3D printing of metallic parts. Small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) tests, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) demonstrate complex relationships among polydopamine coating, filler content, morphology, and rheological properties of the ABS/PEW/Cu system. Furthermore, PEW affects the interface adhesion and shear transmission between the ABS copolymer and the copper filler coated with polydopamine. Also, the polydopamine influences the rheological parameters of the polymer composites, namely retardation and relaxation times, melt flow, and cohesive energy density (Ec).

Parametric study on producing Fused Deposition Modelling filament made of recovered carbon black reinforced Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene plastics

Additive manufacturing is a process that makes three-dimensional object layer by layer. There are many different types of 3D printer and the most commonly used is Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). There is a need for a new material for Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) FDM filament to improve filament strength and reduce the usage of plastics. From literature, there are limited studies available on making 3D printer filament reinforced by recycled carbon black. The limitation hinders the potential of using this material in new applications. In this study, recycled carbon black powder (rCB) was added as a filler reinforcement to enhance the properties of ABS. Parameters considered in this study were percentage of filler weight loading and filler size. Tests and characterisation used in this study were tensile test, thickness test, surface roughness test, scanning electron microscopy, density test and water absorption test. There were improvements in mechanical properties such as tensile test and elasticity of the filament compared to the pure ABS plastic. The higher filler percentage can improve the elasticity of filament and lower filler percentage can improve the strength of the filament. The findings could help in improving marketability status and commercialisation potential of rCB reinforced ABS filament for FDM applications.

The Effects of Self-Polymerized Polydopamine Coating on Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Kenaf Fiber (KF) in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM).

This research examines the impact of self-polymerized polydopamine (PDA) coating on the mechanical properties and microstructural behavior of polylactic acid (PLA)/kenaf fiber (KF) composites in fused deposition modeling (FDM). A biodegradable FDM model of natural fiber-reinforced composite (NFRC) filaments, coated with dopamine and reinforced with 5 to 20 wt.% bast kenaf fibers, was developed for 3D printing applications. Tensile, compression, and flexural test specimens were 3D printed, and the influence of kenaf fiber content on their mechanical properties was assessed. A comprehensive characterization of the blended pellets and printed composite materials was performed, encompassing chemical, physical, and microscopic analyses. The results demonstrate that the self-polymerized polydopamine coating acted as a coupling agent, enhancing the interfacial adhesion between kenaf fibers and the PLA matrix and leading to improved mechanical properties. An increase in density and porosity was observed in the FDM specimens of the PLA-PDA-KF composites, proportional to their kenaf fiber content. The enhanced bonding between kenaf fiber particles and the PLA matrix contributed to an increase of up to 13.4% for tensile and 15.3% for flexural in the Young's modulus of PLA-PDA-KF composites and an increase of up to 30% in compressive stress. The incorporation of polydopamine as a coupling agent in the FDM filament composite led to an improvement in tensile, compressive, and flexural stresses and strain at break, surpassing that of pure PLA, while the reinforcement provided by kenaf fibers was enhanced more by delayed crack growth, resulting in a higher strain at break. The self-polymerized polydopamine coatings exhibit remarkable mechanical properties, suggesting their potential as a sustainable material for diverse applications in FDM.

A Review of Natural Fiber-Based Filaments for 3D Printing: Filament Fabrication and Characterization.

Today, additive manufacturing (AM) is the most recent technology used to produce detailed and complexly built parts for a variety of applications. The most emphasis has been given to fused deposition modeling (FDM) in the development and manufacturing fields. Natural fibers have received attention in the area of 3D printing to be employed as bio-filters with thermoplastics, which have prompted an effort for more ecologically acceptable methods of manufacturing. The development of natural fiber composite filaments for FDM requires meticulous methods and in-depth knowledge of the properties of natural fibers and their matrices. Thus, this paper reviews natural fiber-based 3D printing filaments. It covers the fabrication method and characterization of thermoplastic materials blended with natural fiber-produced wire filament. The characterization of wire filament includes the mechanical properties, dimension stability, morphological study, and surface quality. There is also a discussion of the difficulties in developing a natural fiber composite filament. Last but not least, the prospects of natural fiber-based filaments for FDM 3D printing are also discussed. It is hoped that, after reading this article, readers will have enough knowledge regarding how natural fiber composite filament for FDM is created.

A review on the melt extrusion-based fused deposition modeling (FDM): background, materials, process parameters and military applications

AbstractThe contemporary military sector needs a tailor-made product at a low cost and time. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a melt extrusion-based Additive Manufacturing technology for processing thermoplastics, composites, and biomaterials. FDM is competent in fabricating complex parts in different industries, including military, aerospace, automotive, biomedical, and jewellery. The FDM can process various materials and is ideal for fabrication prototypes, functional parts, visualization, concept proofs and fast product development. FDM is currently used in the military for novel components developments and maintenance, opening new logistics and supply chain management methods. Integrating sensors into weaponry for real-time physiological feedback and threat information is also possible. Additionally, FDM can fabricate trauma models for surgical planning and educating military surgeons. This paper presents the FDM background, filaments, and process parameters. Also, the work provides information to readers on the applications and possibilities of the FDM process from a military standpoint.

Investigation of melt flow index of dual metal reinforced ABS polymer for FDM filament fabrication

Additive manufacturing (AM), often known as 3D printing, is a cutting-edge manufacturing process. Fused deposition modelling (FDM), one of the most renowned additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, has increased in popularity in recent decades because it can build complicated geometries that traditional production methods cannot. Polymer-based materials are commonly used in fused deposition modelling (FDM), but they lack certain qualities that make them suitable for use in broader applications. In this study, we investigated the melt flow behaviour of a new material used to make filament wire for 3D printing applications. ABS pellets were reinforced with the various weight percentages (3%, 6%, 9%, 12%, 15%, 18%, and 20%) of aluminium and copper powder combined to form a composite, and the melt flow properties of the composite were studied. The results of the melt flow index (MFI) test show that the MFI value of ABS significantly varies depending on the weight percentage of the reinforced metal.

Magnetic behavior and chaining of strontium ferrite-nylon composite above the melting temperature

To better understand Magnetic Field Assisted Additive Manufacturing (MFAAM) the effect of a magnetic field on the orientation and distribution of magnetic particles in a molten magnetic composite was studied. Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM) measurements were made on Sr-ferrite/PA12 fused deposition modeling filaments of different packing fraction (5 and 40 wt. %). The rotation of the sample’s magnetic moment upon application of a field perpendicular to the easy axis was monitored with a biaxial VSM above the PA12’s softening temperature. The observed magnetic moment transients depend on the temperature, the applied alignment field, the packing fraction, and the initial field-anneal procedure. Longer field-anneals result in larger time constants and seem to induce a hurdle that prevents complete alignment at low temperatures and/or for small fields. Results indicate the molten composite is a non-Newtonian fluid that can support a yielding stress. Scanning Electron microscopy (SEM) images taken on field-annealed samples at 230 °C show strong chaining with little PA-12 left between individual Sr-ferrite particles suggesting that direct particle to particle interaction is the reason for the observed non-zero yielding stress. The melt viscosity of the composite increases with the number of thermal cycles above the melting temperature (Tm). Room temperature (RT) torque magnetometry measurements show that magnetic anisotropy depends on the field annealing process through induced shape anisotropy contributions originating from magnetic particle agglomerates.

Development of Composites of PLA Filled with Different Amounts of Rice Husk Fibers for Fused Deposition Modeling

ABSTRACT Polylactic acid (PLA) has been used as a matrix material to produce composites with natural fibers, which present several advantages, being one of them the addition of value to agricultural waste. Thus, this study aims to develop a PLA 3D filament with the incorporation of a waste agriculture product (rice husk (RH)). For that, RH fibers were prepared, and PLA was loaded up to 20% RH. The filaments were obtained by extrusion. Finally, samples were produced by fused deposition modeling (FDM). The fibers and filaments’ density and thermal stability (TGA) were determined, and their chemical structure changes due to alkali treatment were accessed by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Printability tests were performed, and printed samples were characterized in terms of density, water absorption, and mechanical behavior (compression, tensile, and flexural tests). The results showed that the alkali treatment changed the chemical structure of RH fibers and TGA showed that the filaments did not degrade significantly until 250ºC. The best printability was achieved with 5% of HR content and was the one that showed the lowest mechanical properties reduction. Overall, the present work showed that RH fibers can be successfully used as a filler in PLA filaments for FDM.

A Brief Review of Factors Affecting the Mechanical Properties of Fused Deposition Modelling Part

The mechanical properties of fused deposition modelling (FDM) parts are the most common indicator in defining their potential for a specific application. The reason for the low strength of FDM printed parts is that they are not as strong as their conventionally manufactured counterparts. It is an anisotropic characteristic due to the voids between the deposition lines and the low strength of the thermoplastic material. This paper reviews the factors influencing the mechanical properties of FDM parts from various aspects, including the development of new materials such as FDM filament, process parameter optimization, process parameter adjustment, and other methods for achieving better mechanical properties of FDM parts. The results pointed out that the FDM applications are limited by the material available for filament feedstock and the nature of the FDM process that introduces voids between lines. In addition, the review showed that most research conducted on FDM parameters is about the cause-and-effect relationship but lacks research to relate this effect to the microstructure and mesostructure of FDM parts as well as the mechanism that controls the bonding strength of the part.

A Comparative Analysis of Chemical, Plasma and In Situ Modification of Graphene Nanoplateletes for Improved Performance of Fused Filament Fabricated Thermoplastic Polyurethane Composites Parts.

The limited number of materials and mechanical weakness of fused deposition modeling (FDM) parts are deficiencies of FDM technology. The preparation of polymer composites parts with suitable filler is a promising method to improve the properties of the 3D printed parts. However, the agglomerate of filler makes its difficult disperse in the matrix. In this work, graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) were surface modified with chemical, low-temperature plasma and in situ methods, in order to apply them as fillers for thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). Following its modification, the surface chemical composition of GnPs was analyzed. Three wt% of surface-modified GnPs were incorporated into TPU to produce FDM filaments using a melting compounding process. Their effects on rheology properties and electrical conductivity on TPU/GnPs composites, as well as the dimensional accuracy and mechanical properties of FDM parts, are compared. The images of sample facture surfaces were examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM) to determine the dispersion of GnPs. Results indicate that chemical treatment of GnPs with zwitterionic surfactant is a good candidate to significantly enhance TPU filaments, when considering the FDM parts demonstrated the highest mechanical properties and lowest dimensional accuracy.

Effect of Chemical Treatment of Sugar Palm Fibre on Rheological and Thermal Properties of the PLA Composites Filament for FDM 3D Printing.

The thermal and rheological properties of bio-composite filament materials are crucial characteristics in the development of a bio-composite Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) filament since the printing mechanism of FDM strongly depends on the heating and extrusion process. The effect of chemical treatment on the thermal and rheological properties was investigated to develop composite filaments for FDM using natural fibres such as sugar palm fibre (SPF). SPF underwent alkaline and silane treatment processes before being reinforced with PLA for improving adhesion and removing impurities. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Scanning Calorimetric (DSC), and Melt Flow Index (MFI) analyses were conducted to identify the differences in thermal properties. Meanwhile, a rheological test was conducted to investigate the shear stress and its viscosity. The TGA test shows that the SPF/PLA composite treated with NaOH and silane showed good thermal stability at 789.5 °C with 0.4% final residue. The DSC results indicate that the melting temperature of all samples is slightly the same at 155 °C (in the range of 1 °C), showing that the treatment does not interfere with the melting temperature of the SPF/PLA composite. Thus, the untreated SPF/PLA composite showed the highest degradation temperature, which was 383.2 °C. The SPF/PLA composite treated with NaOH and silane demonstrated the highest melt flow index of 17.6 g/min. In conclusion, these findings offer a reference point for determining the filament extrusion and printability of SPF/PLA composite filaments.

Hard magnetic elastomers incorporating magnetic annealing and soft magnetic particulate for fused deposition modeling

Magnetic elastomers with hard or permanent magnetic particulate are able to achieve complex motion not possible from soft magnetic elastomers. Magnetic annealing and fused deposition modeling (FDM) have been used to increase the performance of magnetic composites. This research explores how the magnetoactive properties of hard magnetic elastomers are influenced by magnetic annealing and the addition of the soft magnetic particulate. Three compositions of the thermoplastic magnetic elastomer composite are explored: 15 vol. % SrFe12O19, 10 vol. % SrFe12O19/5 vol. % carbonyl iron, and 5 vol. % SrFe12O19/10 vol. % carbonyl iron. The material is then extruded into FDM filaments. During the extrusion process, some filament is magnetically annealed in an axial applied field. Magnetic hysteresis loops show that the saturation magnetization and coercivity change based on the relative amount of hard and soft magnetic particulate. The presence of only one coercive field indicates magnetic coupling between the hard and soft components. Magnetoactive testing measures each sample’s mechanical deflection angle as a function of transverse applied magnetic field strength. Qualitative and quantitative results reveal that magnetic annealing is critical to the magnetoactive performance of the hard magnetic elastomers. The results also demonstrate that magnetic annealing and increased carbonyl iron both improve the magnetoactive deflection angle for a given applied field. Scanning electron microscopy shows a stratification effect in a range of the filaments. Understanding these hard magnetic elastomers provides insight into how performance can be controlled and optimized by magnetic annealing and combining hard and soft magnetic particulate.

Rheological Properties of Natural Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composite for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): A Short Review

In the development and manufacturing industries, fused deposition modeling (FDM) receives the greatest attention. It is the most important additive manufacturing (AM) technique, which refers to the process of depositing multiple layers of material in a computer-controlled environment to form a three-dimensional product. Research is presently focusing on the development of 3D printed bio-composite polymers with improved performance. Many studies on the development of new composite materials using natural fiber as a feedstock filament for FDM have recently been published. As a result, conducting a rheology characteristics analysis of new composite materials made from natural resources is required. Its major purpose is to describe the flow behavior of the fiber composite material and determine the optimal melting temperature for the extrusion process of producing wire filament. Thus, this paper focuses on rheological properties of fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composite for FDM.

Electrically Conductive Fused Deposition Modeling Filaments: Current Status and Medical Applications

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is one of the most popular three dimensional (3D) printing techniques especially among researchers. Recently, FDM has been widely developed and improved in many areas. One of these improvements is the introduction of electrically conductive filaments. In general, conductive filaments are usually made of conductive polymer composites. These composites consist of a thermoplastic material blended with carbon-based materials. The quantity of commercially available conductive filaments has grown significantly in recent years. This paper presents a sample of currently available conductive filaments (eight filaments were chosen). These samples were compared by measuring resistance value and highlighting resulted defects of each sample. Additionally, this paper searched and reviewed articles that used conductive FDM filaments in medical applications. These articles were collected and summarized in terms of name of filaments were used, the specific function of the printed conductive object, and name of the printer used to print the conductive object. In conclusion, the main purpose of this project is to facilitate the work of future medical researchers who would like to use commercially available conductive FDM filaments.

3d Printed Bio-potential Dry Electrodes.

The most commonly used bio-potential electrodes are silver/silver chlorides gel-electrodes (Ag/AgCl electrodes). However, wet electrodes are not suited for daily usage and long-term monitoring. Dry electrodes are the best choice for long-term measurements. Dry electrodes can be fabricated using various methods and materials; one of these methods is three dimensional (3d) printing. 3d printing is a cost-effective method and can be easily used in mass production. This paper will present 3d printed bio-potential dry electrodes using five different commercially available fused deposition modeling (FDM) electrically conductive filaments. Then, these printed electrodes will be tested and validated using electrocardiogram (ECG) portable acquisition system. Three out of five filaments were printed successfully. Collected ECG data from these electrodes showed acceptable quality with Signal to Noise Ratios (SNRs) ranging around 20 dB when compared with wet electrodes collected raw data as a reference. In conclusion, this study designed and printed a 100% 3d printed electrodes from three different FDM filaments which could be used efficiently for ECG signal monitoring in resting position.

Innovation Processing of Circuit Boards with FDM Printing and Selective Electrochemical Metallization

Additive processing like fused deposition modeling (FDM) can be used for customized products or prototypes. Due to the layer-by-layer structure it is possible to work flexibly and efficiently in geometry. In the electronics industry geometrically demanding circuit carriers can be built in relatively short times, but the processes are somewhat inflexible and take a series of processing steps. Circuit boards are made from layers of fiber-reinforced plastics and then joined by pressing. Vertical interconnects are made by copper plating. Finally, electronic components added via a soldering process.With FDM it is possible to work flexibly with regard to geometry, printing different materials, and a large selection of filaments is given. For a circuit board, one needs at least two filament materials (one insulator, one electronic conductor) to realize conducting lines.In this work we use FDM with different polymers for printing the substrate plate and conductor track structures in a single process. Some of the filaments are electrically conductive and can be used as conducting path structures. However, the electrical resistance of these filaments is significantly lower than conventional copper tracks. Especially for higher currents, chemical metallization of the polymer tracks with copper and tin is necessary. In the presentation we will discuss the preliminaries for achieving selective electroless metallization on selected FDM filament materials.

Investigation of tensile and flexural properties of kenaf fiber-reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene composites fabricated by fused deposition modeling

Employment of natural fiber for the filament of fused deposition modeling (FDM) can be found in numerous studies from different areas. However, the presence of fiber such as kenaf in polymer filament could cause mechanical properties degradation with regard to the fiber loading owing to low compatibility between natural fiber and polymer matrix. Therefore, this study aims to study the mechanical properties of three-dimensional (3D)-printed structures of composites specimens with varying volume percentages of kenaf fiber. From the tensile and flexural testings, the findings revealed decrements in the tensile strength and modulus of kenaf fiber-reinforced ABS (KRABS) composites from 0 to 5% contents of kenaf fiber which were 23.20 to 11.48 MPa and 328.17 to 184.48 MPa, respectively. The raising amount of kenaf fiber at 5 to 10% raised the tensile strength and modulus from 11.48 to 18.59 MPa and 184.48 to 275.58 MPa, respectively. Flexural strength and modulus of KRABS composites were decreased at to 5% from 40.56 to 26.48 MPa and 113.05 to 60 MPa, respectively. With further kenaf fiber addition from 5 to 10%, the flexural strength and modulus were increased from 26.48 to 32.64 MPa and 60 to 88.46 MPa, respectively. These results were supported by the finding from the morphological analysis, where the presence of porosity and fiber pull out implied the poor interfacial bonding between kenaf fiber and ABS matrix. This study has successfully demonstrated the tensile and flexural performances of different volume percentages of KRABS composites filament for FDM through experimental research.

Use ofPennisetum glaucumstem powder waste as reinforcement in epoxy composites

AbstractThe physicochemical, thermal, and tensile characteristics ofPennisetum glaucumstem powder (PGSP) are described in this article. According to chemical analysis, PGSP contains a larger percentage of cellulose (58.43 wt%) and lower percentages of hemicelluloses (12.86 wt%) and lignin (14.34 wt%). PGSP has a crystallinity index of 56.8%, with a crystallite size of 22.37 nm. A scanning electron microscopy and an atomic force microscopy were used to analyze the external morphology of PGSP. The thermogravimetric analysis of the PGSP exhibited a thermal constancy of 230°C and kinetic activation energy of 88.3 kJ/mol, indicating that it might be used as a filler material in thermoplastic resins with processing temperatures up to 230°C. Mechanical testing of PGSP‐reinforced epoxy composites signified that 9 wt% reinforcement is optimal to achieve improved properties. All the above findings of this investigation proved that PGSP can be used as a suitable primary and a secondary filler in polymer matrixes and it can also be used to make fused deposition modeling filaments for 3D printing.