Fused Deposition Modeling Method Research Articles

Effects of raster angle in single- and multi-oriented layers for the production of polyetherimide (PEI/ULTEM 1010) parts with fused deposition modelling

Abstract Material type and part deposition orientation are two important concerns in additive manufacturing. Additive manufacturing methods utilized by the industry are generally based on polylactic acid (PLA) or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) materials using the fused deposition modelling (FDM) method. However, in present commercial applications, besides extensive use of PLA/ABS, their low strength has emerged as their biggest disadvantage. However, polyetherimide (PEI)/ULTEM 1010 parts represent high-performance engineering thermoplastics and offer superior mechanical properties with high thermal stability. On the other hand, selection of an appropriate raster angle orientation for single- and multi-oriented layers is also of considerable interest. A comprehensive study has been conducted herein on the building of a part using the FDM method using PEI/ULTEM 1010, and attempts have been made to identify the effects of raster angle in single- (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°) and multi-oriented (0/90°, 30°/−60°, 45°/−45°, 0°/90°/45°/−45°) layers. PEI specimens were manufactured via 3D printer, and the mechanical behaviour (tensile, bending and hardness) of the printed parts was correlated with their structures. Morphological properties of tensile fracture surface of 3D printed samples were analysed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Analysis indicated that a 0° part deposition orientation offers optimal mechanical properties because of the bonding structure.

Cold plasma treatment to improve jelly production using a fused deposition modeling 3D printer.

Herein, the effects of cold plasma (CP) on the rheological properties of gelatin-based solutions for 3D jelly printing using a fused deposition modeling method were investigated. The gelatin powder was packaged in a nylon/polyethylene pouch with nitrogen gas and subjected to CP treatment at 15W for 10min using atmospheric dielectric barrier discharge plasma treatment. CP treatment reduced the relative proportion of polar functional groups on the surface of the gelatin powder and forged new bonds (e.g., C-C) that reduced the hydrophilicity of the material. Furthermore, it increased the storage modulus and yield stress of the jelly formulation and lowered the phase angle, improving the fidelity and shape retention of the 3D printed jelly. Using CP-treated gelatin, inferior jelly formulations could be tuned to satisfy established printing criteria. CP treatment can control the rheological properties involved in the 3D printing of jelly.

Usage of 3D Printed Polylactic Acid as a Core Material in Forming of Carbon Fiber Fabric Composite

The weak bonds between the layers of a part produced by the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) method causes damage at an early stage. To overcome the strength problem, FDM parts are manufactured with engineering thermoplastics or reinforced with carbon/glass fiber. Although these studies provided partial improvement on the mechanical strength of the part, the bond strength between the layers was not significantly improved. In this study, we aimed to reduce the negative effect of the weakness in the interlayer bond strength on the strength of the final part. Therefore, a composite laminate was applied on a polylactic acid (PLA) core produced by the FDM method. Weight measurement, tensile test, three-point bending test and weight drop test were performed on the produced test samples. Tensile and bending test results indicates that the composite layer applied on the core produced by the FDM method has a positive effect on the mechanical strength and bending properties. It is concluded that the study will be a source for future research on moldless composite production.

Development and optimization of lattice structure on the walnut shell reinforced PLA composite for the tensile strength and dimensional error properties

The organic fillers and honeycomb lattice structure intruded novel bio-composite materials for the 3D printing application is a practical and eco-friendly approach for developing lightweight biopolymeric components. The present work investigates the impact of incorporation of hexagon lattice structure on the walnut shell/PLA polymeric composite material using the Fused Deposition Modelling method. The printing process parameters such as nozzle temperature, layer height, infill density, and printing speed are varied to optimize the tensile and dimensional area error properties. Taguchi optimization technique is employed to find the optimal printing condition for the effective experimental output responses. The results from the experiments clearly show that the maximum tensile strength of 2.684 MPa was observed on the optimized printing condition of nozzle temperature of 210℃, a layer height of 0.1 mm, an infill density of 100 %, and a printing speed of 20 mm/sec. The developed mathematical model from the regression analysis depicted the R-square value concerning the output responses like tensile strength will be 92.24, and dimensional area error will be 87.48. It proclaims that; the model is fit for the large-scale production of the hexagon lattice structure in the walnut shell/PLA composite. Furthermore, the macrographs of the tested composites fabricated at higher infill density exhibited lower sidewall edge failure than the samples fabricated at the lowest infill density percentages.

Potential of polyhydroxyalkanoate and nanocellulose from oil palm trunk as raw materials for additive manufacturing: A review

AbstractAdditive manufacturing (AM) is beneficial due to its fast prototyping, non‐complexity process, flexibility, which allows for a wide range of innovations. The AM presented in this review concentrated solely on the fused deposition modeling method. The application of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolymer in conjunction with AM technology in accordance with the interest of researchers in practicing sustainable development. Most studies discovered that the features of PHA, such as its brittleness, slow crystallization, and small processing window, may be overcome by blending it with other polymers. In particular, the physical and chemical properties of PHA have a strong influence on its printability in three‐dimensional printing. Furthermore, this article discussed the use of nanocellulose as a reinforcing material in PHA blends due to its high‐surface area, lightweight, and excellent biocompatibility. The limitations in creating and applying PHA were also highlighted, as it was expensive and difficult to process at high temperatures. Overall, this article provided an overview of AM, including the potential of oil palm trunk as a source of PHA and nanocellulose for bio‐composite products.

The effect of polyethylene glycol on printability, physical and mechanical properties and osteogenic potential of 3D-printed poly (l-lactic acid)/polyethylene glycol scaffold for bone tissue engineering

One of the challenges in critical size bone defect repairing is the use of a porous degradable scaffold with appropriate properties to the host tissue. Nowadays, the three-dimensional (3D) printing method can produce custom and personalized scaffolds and overcome the problems of traditional methods by controlling the porosity and dimensions of biomaterial scaffolds. In this study, polylactic acid/polyethylene glycol (PLA/PEG) scaffolds were prepared with different PEG percentages (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 wt%) by fused deposition modeling (FDM) to optimize printability and achieve suitable physico-mechanical properties and also enhance cellular behavior for bone tissue engineering and actually, this study complements previous studies. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were employed for chemical, morphological and thermal evaluations, respectively. It was shown that the adding of 20 wt% PEG to PLA 3D printed scaffolds reduced water contact angle (from 78.16 ± 3.27 to 60.00 ± 2.16), and increased surface wettability. The results also showed that the mechanical properties of the printed scaffolds were not significantly reduced by adding 5 and 10 wt% of PEG. The addition of PEG increased the degradability of scaffolds during immersion in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) solution for 8 weeks and PLA/PEG20 scaffold with 50.96 % had the highest rate of degradation. MTT assay showed that none of the studied scaffolds had cytotoxicity against MG-63 cells and increasing the PEG levels to 20 wt%, increased cell viability and adhesion and osteogenic differentiation. According to the obtained physical, mechanical and biological results, PLA/PEG scaffold printed by the FDM method can be an appropriate candidate for use in bone repair applications.

Üç Boyutlu Yazıcı ile Kuğu Boynu Deformitesi için Kişiye Özgü Parmak Ortez Üretimi ve Kullanıcı Memnuniyeti

Amaç: Kuğu boynu deformitesi, proksimal interfalangeal eklemin hiperekstansiyonu, distal interfalangeal eklemin fleksiyonu ile karakterizedir. Tedavi sürecinde, konservatif yöntemlere ek olarak kullanılan ortezlerin çeşitli şekillerde üretimi mevcuttur. Son dönemlerde öne çıkan üç boyutlu (3B) yazıcı teknolojileri ortez üretiminde de kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı kuğu boynu parmak deformitesi olan kişilere 3B yazıcı kullanarak yüzük ortezi üretmek ve bu kişilerin ortez memnuniyet düzeyini değerlendirmekti.Materyal ve Metot: Çalışma, kişiye özel ortez üretimi ve katılımcıların kullanım memnuniyetinin değerlendirilmesi olarak iki aşamalı olarak yapılandırıldı. Ortezin tasarım aşamasında bilgisayar destekli modelleme kullanıldı. 3B yazdırma sürecinde erimiş birikimli modelleme yöntemi kullanıldı. Termoplastik malzeme olarak polilaktik-asit tercih edildi. Çalışma 10 gönüllü (7 Erkek, 3 Kadın, yaş ortalaması 55,2±5,31) ile gerçekleştirildi. Katılımcıların ortez kullanım memnuniyetleri Quebec Yardımcı Teknoloji Kullanıcı Memnuniyeti Değerlendirme anketi (Q-YTKMD) ile değerlendirildi.Bulgular: 3B yazıcı teknolojisi kullanılarak kişiye özel yüzük ortez üretildi. Q-YTKMD anketindeki 8 soru için kaydedilen ortalama puanlar 5 puan üzerinden 4.00 ile 5.00 arasında değişmekteydi. Katılımcıların yardımcı cihaz memnuniyet ortalamalarının 4,57±0,38 olduğu belirlendi. Katılımcıların öne çıkan 3 memnuniyet kriteri ortez ağırlığı, kullanım kolaylığı ve işe yararlılığı olduğu belirlendi.Sonuç: Çalışma, günümüzde sağlık sektöründe kullanımı giderek artan 3B yazıcılarla kuğu boynu deformitesi için yüksek kullanıcı memnuniyetli, kişiye özel ortezler üretilmesinin mümkün olduğunu ileri sürmektedir.

3D-printed Mg-1Ca/polycaprolactone composite scaffolds with promoted bone regeneration

In bone tissue engineering, polycaprolactone (PCL) is a promising material with good biocompatibility, but its poor degradation rate, mechanical strength, and osteogenic properties limit its application. In this study, we developed an Mg-1Ca/polycaprolactone (Mg-1Ca/PCL) composite scaffolds to overcome these limitations. We used a melt blending method to prepare Mg-1Ca/PCL composites with Mg-1Ca alloy powder mass ratios of 5, 10, and 20 wt%. Porous scaffolds with controlled macro- and microstructure were printed using the fused deposition modeling method. We explored the mechanical strength, biocompatibility, osteogenesis performance, and molecular mechanism of the Mg-1Ca/PCL composites. The 5 and 10 wt% Mg-1Ca/PCL composites were found to have good biocompatibility. Moreover, they promoted the mechanical strength, proliferation, adhesion, and osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow stem cells (hBMSCs) of pure PCL. In vitro degradation experiments revealed that the composite material stably released Mg2+ ions for a long period; it formed an apatite layer on the surface of the scaffold that facilitated cell adhesion and growth. Microcomputed tomography and histological analysis showed that both 5 and 10 wt% Mg-1Ca/PCL composite scaffolds promoted bone regeneration bone defects. Our results indicated that the Wnt/β-catenin pathway was involved in the osteogenic effect. Therefore, Mg-1Ca/PCL composite scaffolds are expected to be a promising bone regeneration material for clinical application. Statement of significanceBone tissue engineering scaffolds have promising applications in the regeneration of critical-sized bone defects. However, there remain many limitations in the materials and manufacturing methods used to fabricate scaffolds. This study shows that the developed Ma-1Ca/PCL composites provides scaffolds with suitable degradation rates and enhanced boneformation capabilities. Furthermore, the fused deposition modeling method allows precise control of the macroscopic morphology and microscopic porosity of the scaffold. The obtained porous scaffolds can significantly promote the regeneration of bone defects.

PA-12-Zirconia-Alumina-Cenospheres 3D Printed Composites: Accelerated Ageing and Role of the Sterilisation Process for Physicochemical Properties.

The aim of this study was to conduct artificial ageing tests on polymer-ceramic composites prepared from polyamide PA-12 polymer matrix for medical applications and three different variants of ceramic fillers: zirconia, alumina and cenospheres. Before ageing, the samples were subjected to ethyl oxide sterilization. The composite variants were prepared for 3D printing using the fused deposition modeling method. The control group consisted of unsterilized samples. Samples were subjected to artificial ageing in a high-pressure autoclave. Ageing conditions were calculated from the modified Hammerlich Arrhenius kinetic equation. Ageing was carried out in artificial saliva. After ageing the composites were subjected to mechanical (tensile strength, hardness, surface roughness) testing, chemical and structural (MS, FTIR) analysis, electron microscopy observations (SEM/EDS) and absorbability measurements.

A Comparison Study in Terms of Dimensional Accuracy and Precision Of 3D Modeling

In this study, the differences in the dimensions of the 3D models produced by Polyjet and FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) methods as Auto surface modeling (ASm) and Parametric modeling (Pm) were investigated. Here, our purpose is to demonstrate the effects of the modeling methods on the dimensional accuracy and precision. A component having cylindrical, plane and amorphous surfaces have been selected as a sample material. Polyjet and FDM methods have been used in 3D printer using the nominal data of this component. Then a 3D scanner have been used to scan those aforementioned parts. These scans have been remodeled with two different modeling methods, namely, ASm and Pm. After modeling, the measured (scan) data has been compared with the nominal data. Differences in terms of the size of the results were revealed mathematically. According to the results obtained, when we compare the parts produced by Polyjet by ASm and Pm methods, we observe that ASm gives better results all over the surface than Pm. Also the former one has less maximum error norm than the later one. On the other hand the samples produced by FDM using both ASm and Pm give better results all over the surface, but the former one has relatively less maximum error norm than the later one.

Metal 3D Printing by Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) with Metal Powder Filament Materials

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a method of additive manufacturing that involves creating objects by serial deposition for pre-production or production. After designing a 3D model with a CAD program, a processable file is customized to create a layered design, which is then printed. Although this technique costs more than traditional techniques, such as metal injection molding, metal 3D printing can significantly improve the production times of lightweight parts produced in small numbers. Furthermore, is improves flexibility, and is more able to produce complicated geometries that would not be possible with common methods, such as turning, milling or drilling. The fused deposition modeling technique uses a metal powder filament, which is pulled through a high-temperature extrusion nozzle, thus melting the material; after that, the printed parts are placed in the debinding station with a solvent to remove the wax from the powder. Finally, completed products are taken from the sinter furnace with inert gases. Depending on the material, different characteristics arise in the production process, and the produced parts manifest different mechanical properties. This paper describes some experiments performed on the fused deposition modeling method using stainless steel filaments, debinding Opeteon and a sinter furnace.

All 3D Printing Shape‐Conformable Zinc Ion Hybrid Capacitors with Ultrahigh Areal Capacitance and Improved Cycle Life

AbstractAqueous zinc ion hybrid capacitors (ZIHCs) with notable advantages like cost‐effectiveness and safety are promising new‐generation electrochemical energy storage devices (EESDs). However, unsatisfactory areal capacitance, zinc dendrites, and rigid form factor of typical aqueous ZIHCs impede their further practical applications. Herein, a protocol is developed for 3D‐printing shape‐conformable ZIHCs, including hierarchically porous microlattice cathode, metal anode stabilizer, quasisolid gel electrolyte, and plastic packages, through direct ink writing and fused deposition modeling methods. Among these components, microlattice cathodes with a high mass loading density of 22.8 mg cm−2 effectively improve the areal capacitance of ZIHCs, and the metal anode stabilizer sufficiently inhibits dendritic growth to prolong the cycle life of ZIHCs. As a result, the obtained all 3D‐printed ZIHCs deliver a high areal capacitance of 4259 mF cm−2 as well as a considerable energy density of 1514 μWh cm−2, surpassing most reported ZIHCs. The 3D‐printed metal anode stabilizer endows ZIHCs with better cycling stability with almost no capacitance loss after 10 000 cycles. Impressively, the ZIHCs can easily be manufactured into shape‐conformable devices encapsulated by 3D‐printed polylactic acid package, demonstrating their viability. Therefore, this all 3D‐printing strategy provides a general and innovative methodology for constructing customized EESDs.

Research on the Influence of the Load Direction and the Cross-Section Shape on the Young's Modulus of Elements Produced by the Fused Deposition Modeling Method

Research on the Influence of the Load Direction and the Cross-Section Shape on the Young's Modulus of Elements Produced by the Fused Deposition Modeling Method

Feasibility of Predictive Models for the Quality of Additive Manufactured Components Based on Artificial Neural Networks

Additive manufacturing technologies present a series of advantages such as high flexibility, direct CAD to final product fabrication, and compact production techniques which make them an attractive option for fields ranging from medicine and aeronautics to rapid prototyping and Industry 4.0 concepts. However, additive manufacturing also presents a series of disadvantages, the most notable being low dimensional accuracy, low surface quality, and orthotropic mechanical behaviour. These characteristics are influenced by material properties and the process parameters used during manufacturing. Therefore, a predictive model for the characteristics of additive manufactured components is conceivable. This paper proposes a study on the feasibility of implementing Deep Neural Networks for predicting the dimensional accuracy and the mechanical characteristics of components obtained through the Fused Deposition Modelling method using empirical data acquired by high precision metrology. The study is performed on parts manufactured using PETG and PLA materials with known process parameters. Different Deep Neural Network architectures are trained using datasets acquired by high precision metrology, and their performance is tested by comparing the mean absolute error of predictions on training and validation data. Results show good model generalisation and convergence at high accuracy, indicating that a predictive model is feasible.

Improved bond strength, reduced porosity and enhanced mechanical properties of 3D-printed polyetherimide composites by carbon nanotubes

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is one of the fastest-developing additive manufacturing approaches for printing polymers and composites. However, the existence of weak bond strength and high porosity is inevitable in 3D printed special engineering thermoplastics such as polyetherimide (PEI). In the present work, 3D printed carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforced PEI composites showed improved bond strength, reduced porosity and thus remarkably improved mechanical properties by introducing the CNTs. Specifically, the molten co-extrusion technique was employed to fabricate CNT/PEI composite filaments and then the FDM method was used to prepare CNT/PEI composite samples. Influences of CNT content on the tensile properties and microstructures were examined. Results showed that the incorporation of CNTs could improve the mechanical properties of 3D-printed CNT/PEI composites obviously due to the dramatic enhancement of bond strength and the significant reduction of porosity of 3D-printed CNT/PEI composite samples by introducing the CNTs. Furthermore, the incorporation of CNTs combined with annealing is beneficial to further enhancing the mechanical performance and reducing the warping of 3D-printed PEI samples.

An additive manufacturing-based 3D printed poly ɛ-caprolactone/alginate sulfate/extracellular matrix construct for nasal cartilage regeneration.

Various composite scaffolds with different fabrication techniques have been applied in cartilage tissue engineering. In this study, poly ɛ-caprolactone (PCL) was printed by fused deposition modeling method, and the prepared scaffold was filled with Alginate (Alg): Alginate-Sulfate (Alg-Sul) hydrogel to provide a better biomimetic environment and emulate the structure of glycosaminoglycans properly. Furthermore, to enhance chondrogenesis, different concentrations of decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) were added to the hydrogel. For cellular analyses, the adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells were seeded on the hydrogel and the results of MTT assay, live/dead staining, and SEM images revealed that the scaffold with 1% dECM had better viscosity, cell viability, and proliferation. The study was conducted on the optimized scaffold (1% dECM) to determine mechanical characteristics, chondrogenic differentiation, and results demonstrated that the scaffold showed mechanical similarity to the native nasal cartilage tissue along with possessing appropriate biochemical features, which makes this new formulation based on PCL/dECM/Alg:Alg-Sul a promising candidate for further in-vivo studies.

Fused Deposition Modeling as a Possible Approach for the Preparation of Orodispersible Tablets.

Additive manufacturing technologies are considered as a potential way to support individualized pharmacotherapy due to the possibility of the production of small batches of customized tablets characterized by complex structures. We designed five different shapes and analyzed the effect of the surface/mass ratio, the influence of excipients, and storage conditions on the disintegration time of tablets printed using the fused deposition modeling method. As model pharmaceutical active ingredients (APIs), we used paracetamol and domperidone, characterized by different thermal properties, classified into the various Biopharmaceutical Classification System groups. We found that the high surface/mass ratio of the designed tablet shapes together with the addition of mannitol and controlled humidity storage conditions turned out to be crucial for fast tablet’s disintegration. As a result, mean disintegration time was reduced from 5 min 46 s to 2 min 22 s, and from 11 min 43 s to 2 min 25 s for paracetamol- and domperidone-loaded tablets, respectively, fulfilling the European Pharmacopeia requirement for orodispersible tablets (ODTs). The tablet’s immediate release characteristics were confirmed during the dissolution study: over 80% of APIs were released from printlets within 15 min. Thus, this study proved the possibility of using fused deposition modeling for the preparation of ODTs.

Assessing the effect of FDM processing parameters on mechanical properties of PLA parts using Taguchi method

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a fast-expanding additive manufacturing technique for fabricating various polymer components in engineering and medical applications. The mechanical properties of components printed with the FDM method are influenced by several process parameters. In the current work, the influence of nozzle temperature, infill density, and printing speed on the tensile properties of specimens printed using polylactic acid (PLA) filament was investigated. With an objective to achieve better tensile properties including elastic modulus, tensile strength, and fracture strain; Taguchi L8 array has been used for framing experimental runs, and eight experiments were conducted. The results demonstrate that the nozzle temperature significantly influences the tensile properties of the FDM printed PLA products followed by infill density. The optimum processing parameters were determined for the FDM printed PLA material at a nozzle temperature of 220°C, infill density of 100%, and printing speed of 20 mm/s.

Characterization of polylactic acid/thermoplastic polyurethane composite filaments manufactured for additive manufacturing with fused deposition modeling

Polylactic acid and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) were mixed in different proportions and extruded through twin-screw and single screw extruders to obtain composite filaments to be used for additive manufacturing (3D printing) with fused deposition modeling method. The properties of the filaments were characterized using uniaxial tensile tests, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, rheology, polarized optical microscope, and scanning electron microscope. 3D printed samples from composite filaments were tested using dynamic mechanical analysis. It was found that the tensile strength and modulus of the filaments decrease while elongation at break increases with the increasing TPU content in the composite. The analysis also showed a partial miscibility of the polymer constituents in the solution of composite filaments. Finally, a flexible structure, plain weave fabric, was designed and 3D printed using the composite filaments developed which proved that the filaments are well suited for 3D printing.

Warp deformation model of polyetheretherketone composites reinforced with carbon fibers in additive manufacturing

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) provides a promising technique for the small-batch fabrication of highly customized objects. The required performance of FDM far exceeds the performances of conventional manufacturing methods. However, the temperature difference that occurs during FDM generates internal stress, which causes warp deformation and affects formed sample quality. Hence, identifying the influencing factors of warp deformation is the key to improving the forming quality of FDM samples. In this work, PEEK/short carbon fiber (CF) composites were prepared by using the FDM method, the warp deformation formula was derived, and the warp deformation mechanism was obtained. Results showed that the material linear expansion coefficient, forming chamber temperature, and forming size had considerable effects on warp deformation. Moreover, CF could improve the warp deformation of the PEEK/CF composites because of their low Poisson’s ratio and high thermal conductivity. The addition of CF could reduce the residual stress of the composites and improve warp deformation. In addition, annealing could improve the tensile and bending mechanical properties of the PEEK/CF composites. Specifically, after 3 h of heat treatment at 190 °C, the tensile and bending mechanical properties of the composites reached 10.7% and 11.6%, respectively. Crystallinity analysis revealed that the mechanical properties of the PEEK/CF composites strongly depended on their crystallinity. High cooling temperature rates were associated with low crystallinity, tensile strengths, and elastic moduli. DMA analysis showed that the addition of CF could improve the high-temperature resistance of the PEEK/CF composites as reflected by the higher glass transition temperature of the composites than that of the pure PEEK resin. Porosity analysis showed that the CF content could tailor the pore size and distribution. The study reported here provides a reference for improving the forming quality and mechanical properties of PEEK/CF composites fabricated through FDM.