Fusarium Mycotoxins Research Articles

Fusarium langsethiae and mycotoxin contamination in oat grain differed with growth stage at inoculation

High levels of mycotoxins are occasionally observed in Norwegian oat grain lots. Mycotoxins of primary concern in Norwegian oats are deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by Fusarium graminearum and HT2- and T2-toxins (HT2 + T2) produced by Fusarium langsethiae. Improved understanding of the epidemiology of Fusarium spp. is important for the development of measures to control mycotoxins. We studied the susceptibility to F. langsethiae after inoculation at early (booting, heading, flowering) or late (flowering, milk, dough) growth stages in three oat varieties in greenhouse experiments. The varieties had previously shown different levels of resistance to F. graminearum: Odal, Vinger (both moderately resistant), and Belinda (susceptible). The level of F. langsethiae DNA and HT2 + T2 were measured in harvested grain. In addition, we observed differences in aggressiveness (measured as the level of F. langsethiae DNA in grain) between F. langsethiae isolates after inoculation of oats at flowering. Substantial levels of F. langsethiae DNA (mean ≥ 138 pg per μg plant DNA) and HT2 + T2 (≥348 μg/kg) were detected in grain harvested from oats that were spray-inoculated at heading or later stages, but not at booting (mean ≤ 10 pg/μg and ≤ 25 μg/kg, respectively), suggesting that oats are susceptible to F. langsethiae from heading and onwards. Vinger was the most resistant variety to F. langsethiae/HT2 + T2, whereas Odal and Belinda were relatively susceptible. We observed that late inoculations yielded high levels of other trichothecene A metabolites (mean sum of metabolites of 35–1048 μg/kg) in addition to HT2 + T2, in harvested grain, an indication that infections close to harvest may pose a further risk to food and feed safety.

Influence of growing season, nitrogen fertilisation and wheat variety on Fusarium infection and mycotoxin production in wheat kernel

Abstract Fusarium spp. are phytopathogens causing fusarium head blight in wheat. They produce mycotoxins, mainly fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone. The study was conducted during two growing seasons (2020 and 2021) at the experimental field and laboratories of the Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences (MATE). The aim of the study was to determine the influence of growing season, nitrogen fertilisation, and wheat variety on Fusarium infection and mycotoxin production in wheat kernel. Zearalenone was not detected during the two growing seasons and deoxynivalenol was only detected in 2020. The results indicate that nitrogen fertilisation and wheat variety did not have statistically significant influence on Fusarium infection and mycotoxin production. The growing season had statistically significant influence on Fusarium infection and fumonisins production due to higher rainfall in 2021 compared to 2020 during the flowering period when the wheat spike is the most vulnerable to Fusarium infection.

Natural contamination of Czech malting barley with mycotoxins in connection with climate variability

Ongoing climate change is affecting the geographical distribution of microscopic filamentous fungi and the mycotoxins they produce. In 2018–2020, the occurrence of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxin, and ochratoxin A was monitored in a total of 450 samples of spring and winter malting barley from different regions of the Czech Republic. On average, the total contents of positive samples in the respective years were 40% for DON, 21% for ZEN and almost 79% for the sum of T-2, and HT-2 toxins. The ochratoxin A content was always below the detection limit except for three samples from the 2019 harvest. Mycotoxin levels were strongly affected by climate variability in the respective years. Very low concentrations of DON and ZEN were found in 2018–2019 with low rainfall and high temperatures. The highest level of contamination was found in the 2020 harvest, with 3.7% of samples exceeding the maximum level for DON and 2.2% for ZEN. The T-2 and HT-2 toxin levels increased year on year. This increasing contamination with T-2 and HT-2 toxins may indicate a change in the spectrum of fungal pathogens and their adaptation to new conditions.

A Preliminary Study to Classify Corn Silage for High or Low Mycotoxin Contamination by Using near Infrared Spectroscopy

Mycotoxins should be monitored in order to properly evaluate corn silage safety quality. In the present study, corn silage samples (n = 115) were collected in a survey, characterized for concentrations of mycotoxins, and scanned by a NIR spectrometer. Random Forest classification models for NIR calibration were developed by applying different cut-offs to classify samples for concentration (i.e., μg/kg dry matter) or count (i.e., n) of (i) total detectable mycotoxins; (ii) regulated and emerging Fusarium toxins; (iii) emerging Fusarium toxins; (iv) Fumonisins and their metabolites; and (v) Penicillium toxins. An over- and under-sampling re-balancing technique was applied and performed 100 times. The best predictive model for total sum and count (i.e., accuracy mean ± standard deviation) was obtained by applying cut-offs of 10,000 µg/kg DM (i.e., 96.0 ± 2.7%) or 34 (i.e., 97.1 ± 1.8%), respectively. Regulated and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins achieved accuracies slightly less than 90%. For the Penicillium mycotoxin contamination category, an accuracy of 95.1 ± 2.8% was obtained by using a cut-off limit of 350 µg/kg DM as a total sum or 98.6 ± 1.3% for a cut-off limit of five as mycotoxin count. In conclusion, this work was a preliminary study to discriminate corn silage for high or low mycotoxin contamination by using NIR spectroscopy.

Different Resistance to DON versus HT2 + T2 Producers in Nordic Oat Varieties.

Over recent decades, the Norwegian cereal industry has had major practical and financial challenges associated with the occurrence of Fusarium head blight (FHB) pathogens and their associated mycotoxins in cereal grains. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most common Fusarium-mycotoxins in Norwegian oats, however T-2 toxin (T2) and HT-2 toxin (HT2) are also commonly detected. The aim of our study was to rank Nordic spring oat varieties and breeding lines by content of the most commonly occurring Fusarium mycotoxins (DON and HT2 + T2) as well as by the DNA content of their respective producers. We analyzed the content of mycotoxins and DNA of seven fungal species belonging to the FHB disease complex in grains of Nordic oat varieties and breeding lines harvested from oat field trials located in the main cereal cultivating district in South-East Norway in the years 2011–2020. Oat grains harvested from varieties with a high FHB resistance contained on average half the levels of mycotoxins compared with the most susceptible varieties, which implies that choice of variety may indeed impact on mycotoxin risk. The ranking of oat varieties according to HT2 + T2 levels corresponded with the ranking according to the DNA levels of Fusarium langsethiae, but differed from the ranking according to DON and Fusarium graminearum DNA. Separate tests are therefore necessary to determine the resistance towards HT2 + T2 and DON producers in oats. This creates practical challenges for the screening of FHB resistance in oats as today’s screening focuses on resistance to F. graminearum and DON. We identified oat varieties with generally low levels of both mycotoxins and FHB pathogens which should be preferred to mitigate mycotoxin risk in Norwegian oats.

The application of antagonistic yeasts and bacteria: An assessment of in vivo and under field conditions pattern of Fusarium mycotoxins in winter wheat grain

Bacteria of the genus Sphingomonas, Aureobasidium pullulans yeast-like fungus and yeast Debaryomyces hansenii naturally colonize wheat grain. Selected isolates of these microorganisms, antagonistic against Fusarium spp., can be applied to wheat spikes to complement chemical control methods. The aim of this study was to determine the content of Fusarium mycotoxins in winter wheat grain in vivo and under field conditions, and to analyze the interactions between antagonistic microorganisms and F. culmorum and F. avenaceum pathogens in dual cultures. Seventeen toxic metabolites produced by Fusarium fungi were identified in grain: deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, culmorin, 15-hydroxyculmorin, 5-hydroxyculmorin, HT-2 toxin, nivalenol, nivalenol-3-glucoside, aurofusarin, enniatins, zearalenone, moniliformin, equisetin, and apicidin. Integrated fungicide and biological treatments decreased deoxynivalenol levels in grain in the field conditions from 141.36 to 72.76 μg/kg. Deoxynivalenol was not detected in grain treated with D. hansenii suspension, and culmorin content was 38 times lower than in unprotected grain. Fungicides and integrated treatments involving D. hansenii also decreased enniatin A1 content by 76.61 and 48.17%. In vitro yeasts considerably reduced moniliformin and enniatin concentrations by 7.67–92.87%. Antagonistic microorganisms, which inhibit the growth of Fusarium fungi through antibiosis and competition for nutrients, can effectively reduce the production of selected Fusarium toxins when combined with fungicides in the integrated approach.

Niveles de Aflatoxinas en alimentos finalizadores para pollos de engorde y cerdos procedentes de fábricas de alimentos balanceados comerciales en Venezuela

Mycotoxins, even so government regulates to control their levels in animal balance feeds, they could pose a problem to animal and human consumption health. Therefore, the aim was to determine the levels of total aflatoxins found in the finisher balanced feeds for broilers and pigs, produced by balanced feed factories (BFF) in Venezuela. Eleven BFFs were sampled and evaluated for the presence of aflatoxins: AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, determined using the analytical chemical technique HPLC-FLD. Thirty three feed samples for broilers and 33 for pigs, a total of 66 samples were obtained from BFFs. The presence of aflatoxins was detected in 100 % of the finisher balanced feeds for poultry and pigs. The determined AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 levels in finisher balanced feeds for broilers and pigs, rendered that the aflatoxin with the highest concentration was always AFB1. The averages of total aflatoxins detected from finisher feeds for broilers and pigs were within the maximum allowed limits (20 micrograms (μg) / kilograms (kg) of COVENIN standards (Venezuelan regulations). When compared each aflatoxin level (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2) eight out of eleven BFFs evaluated comply with the standard, but 3 (F1, F2 and F5) BFFs were outside (5 μg/kg). It is pertinent that the companies that produce final food for poultry and pigs carry out additional and frequent evaluations of other mycotoxins (Ocratoxins, fusarium mycotoxins and mycotoxins emerging) present in raw materials, in order to evaluate the risks in the agri-food chain, in the way to implement solutions before or after processesment to ensure public health quality.

Challenges of Lactobacillus fermentation in combination with acoustic screening for deoxynivalenol and deoxynivalenol conjugates reduction in contaminated wheat - based products

This study was dedicated to apply biological treatment using Lactobacillus (LAB) fermentation separately or in combination with an acoustic screening method for the prevention of mycotoxins in Fusarium spp. contaminated wheat-based products. Wheat samples of different contamination were treated separately using antimicrobial LAB strains (L. casei, L. plantarum, L. paracasei, and L. uvarum) and the changes on the level of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its conjugates such as 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), and DON-3-β-D-glucoside (D3G)) were evaluated using UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS and UHPLC-Orbitrap-HRMS. Additionally, an acoustic device was used to analyse DON in the wheat raw samples (without treatment). High linear correlations were obtained between HPLC results and the penetrated acoustic signal amplitude (Ap) for DON and D3G (R2 = 0.85 and R2 = 0.82, respectively). The results of fermentation demonstrated that bio-treatment of contaminated wheat was very effective for DON and masked toxin reduction in the media. Contaminated wheat-based products fermentation using L. uvarum allowed to reduce DON and D3G content in the media up to 75.0% and 84.1%, respectively, while the values of DON conjugates (3-ADON, 15-ADON) were reduced below LOD/LOQ. Fusarium spp. contaminated wheat grains demonstrated different enzymatic profiles (amylolytic, xylanolytic, and proteolytic) which could be related with biological degradation of mycotoxins during fermentation. The amylolytic and xylanolytic activities of fungi correlated well with DON content (R2 = 0.8235, R2 = 0.8694, respectively) as well as with D3G (R2 = 0.9314, R2 = 0.9937, respectively). The findings of this study indicate that bio-treatment of contaminated wheat could efficiently reduce Fusarium mycotoxin levels below the LOD/LOQ in wheat-based products and improve the sustainability of grain production. However, before mycotoxin analysis LAB cells were not removed from the substrate and the results are focused on possible contaminants biodegradation. The acoustic technique could identify DON as well as D3G contamination in raw wheat grains and is a promising tool in the wheat grain processing chain.

Effect of Organic and Conventional Cereal Production Methods on Fusarium Head Blight and Mycotoxin Contamination Levels

Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals constitute major problems for animal and human health worldwide. A range of plant pathogenic Fusarium species that can infect cereal plants in the field are considered the most important source of mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), T-2 toxin, and HT-2 toxin, in small-grain cereal crops in temperate climates. In this article, we (i) critically review the available knowledge on the impact of contrasting production systems (organic versus conventional) and specific agronomic parameters on the occurrence and concentrations of DON, ZEA, and T-2/HT-2 in small-grain cereals (wheat, oats, barley, and rye), and (ii) discuss Fusarium mycotoxin risks in the context of the need to develop more sustainable cereal production systems. Overall, the available evidence from studies of acceptable scientific quality suggests that the incidence and concentrations of Fusarium mycotoxin are lower in organic compared with conventional cereals. Specifically, 24 comparisons showed lower mycotoxin levels in organic production, 16 detected no significant difference, and only 2 showed higher levels in organic production. When the mean concentrations from all studies were compared, conventionally produced cereals had 62%, 110%, and 180% higher concentrations of DON, ZEA, and T-2/HT-2, respectively, than organic cereals. Overall, published studies on the effects of specific agronomic practices on mycotoxin levels suggest that diverse crop rotations and high soil organic matter content/biological activity are associated with a lower risk of Fusarium mycotoxin contamination, whereas (i) high mineral nitrogen fertiliser inputs, (ii) some fungicides and herbicides, and (iii) minimum or no tillage may increase the risks of Fusarium mycotoxin contamination in cereals. The management of Fusarium head blight and mycotoxins, therefore, requires a preventative, integrated, holistic agronomic approach.

Human biomonitoring of multiple mycotoxins in hair: first large-scale pilot study

Human biomonitoring (HBM) represents the most accurate approach for assessing the exposure to mycotoxins, but traditional matrices fail to provide information about long-term exposure due to the rapid excretion rates and short half-lives of mycotoxins. Hair emerges as a promising matrix considering that contaminants can form stable links with hair components, such as keratins and melanin. Hence, the aim of the present study was to monitor the presence of up to ten mycotoxins (aflatoxins andFusarium mycotoxins) in human hair samples (n=100) through a high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to Q-TOF high resolution mass spectrometry. A prevalence of 43% at concentrations ranging from 2.7 to 106.1 ng/g was observed, being enniatins and aflatoxin B1 the most prevalent compounds. Co-occurrence of up to three mycotoxins was observed in 42% of the positive samples. Retrospective untargeted analysis of hair samples tentatively identified up to 128 mycotoxins and related metabolites. These results confirm the accumulation of toxicologically relevant mycotoxins in hair matrix, thus standing as a suitable matrix for assessing long-term exposure.

Emerging mycotoxins and reproductive effects in animals: A short review.

Emerging Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs), and moniliformin (MON) are gaining increasing interest due to their wide presence especially in cereals and grain-based products. In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that Fusarium mycotoxins can be implicated in reproductive disorders in animals. Of these mycotoxins, BEA may affect reproductive functions, impairing the development of oocytes in pigs and sheep. Studies show dramatic inhibitory effects of BEA and ENNA on bovine granulosa cell steroidogenesis. ENNs also inhibit boar sperm motility and cause detrimental effects on embryos in mice and pigs. Although little data are reported on reproductive effects of MON, in vitro studies show inhibitory effects of MON on Chinese hamster ovary cells. The present review aims to summarize the reproductive toxicological effects of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins BEA, ENNs, and MON on embryo development, ovarian function, and testicular function of animals. In vitro and in vivo toxicological data are reported although additional studies are needed for proper risk assessment.

Effects of Voghiera garlic extracts in neuronal human cell line against zearalenone's derivates and beauvericin

The Fusarium toxins constitute one of the largest groups of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species, which are major pathogens of cereal plants. In the present study neuroprotection effect of Allium sativum L garlic extract which is known as Voghiera garlic, from a local garlic ecotype of Ferrara (Italy) was examined on an undifferentiated SH-SY5Y neuronal cells against ZEA's metabolites (α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL)) and beauvericin (BEA) mycotoxins which are considered as the most reported Fusarium mycotoxins, via MTT (3–4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay, over 24 h and 48 h through direct treatment, simultaneous treatment and pre-treatment strategies. The results demonstrated remarkable improvement in cells viability in simultaneous and pre-treatment strategy with Voghiera garlic extract (VGE); specifically, for simultaneous treatment of VGE with β-ZEL which viability increased significantly up to 56%, and subsequently with α-ZEL and BEA by up to 38% and 37% respectively, compared to each mycotoxin tested alone for their highest concentrations assayed, while direct treatments for each mycotoxins individually decreased significantly (for α-ZEL up to 69%, for β-ZEL 82% and for BEA up to 43%). It is proposed by the present study that VGE extract found to be effective in reducing the cytotoxicity/neurotoxicity of α-ZEL, β-ZEL and BEA mycotoxins encountered in food and feed commodity.

Reduction of the Fusarium Mycotoxins: Deoxynivalenol, Nivalenol and Zearalenone by Selected Non-Conventional Yeast Strains in Wheat Grains and Bread.

Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi, are important contaminants in food and agricultural industries around the world. These toxins have a multidirectional toxic effect on living organisms, causing damage to the kidneys and liver, and disrupting the functions of the digestive tract and the immune system. In recent years, much attention has been paid to the biological control of pathogens and the mycotoxins they produce. In this study, selected yeasts were used to reduce the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and zearalenone (ZEA) produced by Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, and F. poae on wheat grain and bread. In a laboratory experiment, an effective reduction in the content of DON, NIV, and ZEA was observed in bread prepared by baking with the addition of an inoculum of the test yeast, ranging from 16.4% to 33.4%, 18.5% to 36.2% and 14.3% to 35.4%, respectively. These results indicate that the selected yeast isolates can be used in practice as efficient mycotoxin decontamination agents in the food industry.

Degradation of Carbendazim by Molecular Hydrogen on Leaf Models.

Although molecular hydrogen can alleviate herbicide paraquat and Fusarium mycotoxins toxicity in plants and animals, whether or how molecular hydrogen influences pesticide residues in plants is not clear. Here, pot experiments in greenhouse revealed that degradation of carbendazim (a benzimidazole pesticide) in leaves could be positively stimulated by molecular hydrogen, either exogenously applied or with genetic manipulation. Pharmacological and genetic increased hydrogen gas could increase glutathione metabolism and thereafter carbendazim degradation, both of which were abolished by the removal of endogenous glutathione with its synthetic inhibitor, in both tomato and in transgenic Arabidopsis when overexpressing the hydrogenase 1 gene from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Importantly, the antifungal effect of carbendazim in tomato plants was not obviously altered regardless of molecular hydrogen addition. The contribution of glutathione-related detoxification mechanism achieved by molecular hydrogen was confirmed. Our results might not only illustrate a previously undescribed function of molecular hydrogen in plants, but also provide an environmental-friendly approach for the effective elimination or reduction of pesticides residues in crops when grown in pesticides-overused environmental conditions.

Mycotoxigenic Genera of Micromycetes Contaminating Food and Feed

Mycotoxins and their impact on human health, food safety and significant economic losses have recently been a discussed problem. The most important of these secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, Fusarium mycotoxins, patulin and others. Mycotoxigenic fungi are cosmopolitan microorganisms and therefore thorough sanitation and control of limits of mycotoxins in all steps of food production and storage is crucial.

Fusarium Mycotoxins in Maize Field Soils: Method Validation and Implications for Sampling Strategy.

While mycotoxins are generally regarded as food contamination issues, there is growing interest in mycotoxins as environmental pollutants. The main sources of trichothecene and zearalenone mycotoxins in the environment are mainly attributed to Fusarium infested fields, where mycotoxins can wash off in infested plants or harvest residues. Subsequently, mycotoxins inevitably enter the soil. In this context, investigations into the effects, fate, and transport are still needed. However, there is a lack of analytical methods used to determine Fusarium toxins in soil matrices. We aimed to validate an analytical method capable of determining the toxins nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-AcDON), and zearalenone (ZEN), at environmentally relevant concentrations, in five contrasting agricultural soils. Soils were spiked at three levels (3, 9 and 15 ng g−1), extracted by solid-liquid extraction assisted with ultrasonication, using a generic solvent composition of acetonitrile:water 84:16 (v:v) and measured by LC–HRMS. Method validation was successful for NIV, DON, and 15-AcDON with mean recoveries > 93% and RSDr < 10%. ZEN failed the validation criteria. The validated method was applied to eight conventionally managed maize field soils during harvest season, to provide a first insight into DON, NIV, and 15-AcDON levels. Mycotoxins were present in two out of eight sampled maize fields. Soil mycotoxin concentrations ranged from 0.53 to 19.4 ng g−1 and 0.8 to 2.2 ng g−1 for DON and NIV, respectively. Additionally, we found indication that “hot-spot” concentrations were restricted to small scales (<5 cm) with implications for field scale soil monitoring strategies.

Host Genotype and Weather Effects on Fusarium Head Blight Severity and Mycotoxin Load in Spring Barley.

Epidemiology of Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) of spring barley is relatively little understood. In a five-year study, we assessed quantitative resistance to FHB in an assortment of 17 spring barley genotypes in the field in southern Germany. To this end, we used soil and spray inoculation of plants with F. culmorum and F. avenaceum. This increased disease pressure and provoked genotypic differentiation. To normalize effects of variable weather conditions across consecutive seasons, we used a disease ranking of the genotypes based on quantification of fungal DNA contents and multiple Fusarium toxins in harvested grain. Together, this allowed for assessment of stable quantitative FHB resistance of barley in several genotypes. Fungal DNA contents were positively associated with species-specific Fusarium toxins in single years and over several years in plots with soil inoculation. In those plots, plant height limited FHB; however, this was not observed after spray inoculation. A multiple linear regression model of recorded weather parameter and fungal DNA contents over five years identified time periods during the reproductive phase of barley, in which weather strongly influenced fungal colonization measured in mature barley grain. Environmental conditions before heading and late after anthesis showed strongest associations with F. culmorum DNA in all genotypes, whereas for F. avenaceum, this was less consistent where we observed weather-dependent associations, depending on the genotype. Based on this study, we discuss aspects of practical resistance breeding in barley relevant to improve quantitative resistance to FHB and associated mycotoxin contaminations.

Regulated Mycotoxin Occurrence and Co-Occurrence in Croatian Cereals.

A total of 209 samples of various cereal crops (maize, wheat, barley, rye and oats) grown in Croatian fields during 2016 and 2017 were collected to analyze and determine the occurrence and co-occurrence of EU regulated mycotoxins in cereals (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, DON, FB1, FB2, ZEA, T-2, HT-2 and OTA). The analysis, performed by a validated confirmatory LC-MS/MS method based on a dilute and shoot principle, highlighted Fusarium mycotoxins as the main contaminants, often co-occurring in samples from both years (50.0% in 2016 and 33.7% in 2017). DON was found to be the most frequent mycotoxin, present in 72.5% of the 2016 samples and 32.6% of the 2017 samples, while maize proved to be the most contaminated cereal type of both years with FUM as the most abundant mycotoxins, with an average concentration of 1180 µg/kg. Moderate temperatures with periods of high humidity favored the accumulation of DON in wheat samples instead of other Fusarium mycotoxins, while similar conditions favored maize contamination with FUM. A total of 8.3% of all the 2016 harvest samples and 7.9% of the 2017 harvest samples were assessed as non-compliant, containing mycotoxins in concentrations higher than the levels set by the EU legislation for food.

Factors affecting the level of Fusarium mycotoxins in grain. Vestsі Natsyyanal’nay akademіі navuk Belarusі

Mycotoxins accumulation in grain is one of the most widely analyzed problem nowadays, as soon as these metabolites are of high danger to health of warm-blooded animals and humans. Producing mycotoxins with Fusarium fungi beaing causal agents of Fusarium head blight, depends on range of factors, and among measures for their accumulation decrease, chemical method is one of the most effective ones. The paper presents the results of study on factors affecting mycotoxins accumulation under the field conditions. During the experiment with artificial inoculation of winter wheat heads by F. culmorum fungi, the influence of triazole fungicides on Fusarium head blight and mycotoxins content had been estimated. Higher biological efficiency (83,2-79,2 %) for disease severity decrease was higher with fungicide Osiris, EC. Use of fungicides led to increase in indicators of economic efficiency in comparison with the option with no treatment, including the yield, by 12.3-12.8%. In the variants with head protection, the DON content was 2.0-2.1 times lower than in the control. Under conditions of natural damage to various varieties of grain crops (winter wheat and triticale, spring barley) by Fusarium head blight, its depressive manifestation had been determined. It had been determined that spring barley, regardless of the variety, was more resistant to accumulation of mycotoxins, in particular ZEN. Level of mycotoxins in winter wheat and triticale grain varied depending on variety and storage duration. The data obtained will serve as the basis for substantiating measures to reduce the level of mycotoxins in grain. Acknowledgments. The research was carried out with the financial support of the Belarusian Republican Foundation for Fundamental Research as a part of the scientific research project “Comprehensive assessment of mycotoxins accumulation during foodstuff storage” (treaty N Б19МЛДГ-009).

Occurrence of mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in silage from the north of Portugal at feed-out

Maize and grass silages are important dietary components for ruminant livestock that influence the quality of animal products for human consumption, such as milk, in many parts of the world. Infection of plants by fungi able to produce mycotoxins, either in the field or post-harvest, can result in a decrease of silage nutritional quality and, consequently, in milk quality. In this study, 45 maize and grass silage samples were collected from 25 dairy farms located in the north of Portugal. The occurrence of fungi was evaluated in samples, the most frequently isolated species being Aspergillus fumigatus, Dipodascus geotrichum, Mucor circinelloides, Penicillium paneum, and Aspergillus flavus. The mycotoxigenic profile of the fungal species was studied using the ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry–ion trap–time-of-flight (UHPLC–MS–IT–TOF) detection. In addition, a new method based on a QuEChERS extraction followed by the UHPLC- tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) detection was developed for simultaneous analysis of 39 mycotoxins in silage. A high co-occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins was found, although at low levels of contamination. Deoxynivalenol and beauvericin were found in more than 82% of maize silage samples. It can be highlighted the low occurrence of Penicillium and Aspergillus toxins in the maize and grass silages studied despite the frequent detection of species of both genera.