Funk Island Research Articles

Immature Northern Gannets (Morus bassanus) increase colony attendance following highly pathogenic avian influenza

The emergence of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in wild bird populations in 2020 changed the landscape of this disease for seabird populations, including Northern Gannets Morus bassanus. In 2023, we photographed the three Northern Gannet colonies in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada (Funk Island, Baccalieu Island and Cape St Mary's), following an HPAI outbreak in 2022 and documented an overall 43% decline in apparently occupied sites (AOS) from the last population survey in 2018. During the photo analyses, we assigned immature birds present in the core breeding area to one of four age categories according to their plumage characteristics, and estimated that 9% (inter‐colony variance ranging from 7 to 14%) of all AOS in 2023 hosted at least one immature bird, an increase compared with rates of 2% or less before the outbreak. Further, 16% of all immature birds present in the core breeding area showed evidence of breeding and were probably 2‐ and 3‐year‐old birds. Our results support the social competition theory whereby a higher proportion of immature and/or younger immature birds occupying an AOS within the core breeding area is observed following significant reductions in numbers of established breeders, suggesting the presence of a pool of immature birds capable of recruiting into the Newfoundland Northern Gannet breeding population and help its recovery.

The Great Auk (Pinguinus impennis) had two brood patches, not one: confirmation and implications

Since the late 1600s it has been assumed that the Great AukPinguinus impenniswas similar to the Common GuillemotUria aalgeand Brünnich's GuillemotUria lomviain having a single, central brood patch. Through the examination of eight mounted museum specimens, we show that this is incorrect and that, like its closest relative the RazorbillAlca torda, the Great Auk had two lateral brood patches. We discuss how such misinformation persisted for so long. We also review the relationship between the number of brood patches and clutch size in the Alcidae. One implication of two brood patches is that the Great Auk would have incubated in a horizontal posture like the Razorbill, rather than in a semi‐upright posture like theUriaguillemots. Assuming that the Great Auk incubated like the Razorbill, it would probably have done so horizontally with its single egg pressed against one of the two lateral brood patches, positioned against the inside of one tarsus (and partially on the web of one foot), and with the wing on that side drooped to provide additional protection for the egg. Incubating in this way may have meant that the Great Auk's pyriform egg would have enabled it to use both level and sloping terrain, as in theUriaguillemots (but unlike the Razorbill). A horizontal incubation also has implications for estimates of their breeding density, which we estimate to have been around four pairs per square metre and, hence numbers on its largest known colony, Funk Island, Newfoundland (maximum 250 000 pairs).

Glacial geomorphology of the Northeast Newfoundland Shelf: ice‐stream switching and widespread glaciotectonics

Analysis of Olex bathymetry, multibeam sonar and seismic survey data, shows that, perhaps during the mid Pleistocene, grounded ice crossing the Northeast Newfoundland Shelf was topographically steered in Hawke Saddle, occupied a broad trough underlying much of Belle Isle Bank and present‐day Notre Dame Trough, and deposited ~100 m of stacked glacigenic sediment; grounded ice crossed southern Funk Island Bank and occupied Notre Dame Trough. During the Wisconsinan Stage, c. 30 cal. ka BP, flow remained topographically steered in Hawke Saddle, but due to flow switching two convergent ice streams incised the stacked sediments of the earlier phase, creating the modern Notre Dame Trough, and diverging around an erosional remnant near the shelf edge. The ice margin at the Last Glacial Maximum (c. 18 14C ka BP) was at the shelf edge in Trinity Trough but far to the west elsewhere. Retreating ice did not stabilize at fjord mouths, but halted several times within fjords. Shelf morphology was shaped by glaciotectonism. The large tectonized zone on the north flank of Notre Dame Trough was created by the northernmost of the two convergent streams. Glaciotectonism was most widespread in the enclosed St. Anthony Basin, where the Quaternary cover has been stripped away, arrays of composite ridges have formed and sediment blocks have been thrust onto the adjacent bank. A large hill‐hole pair was formed on the east side of the basin, extending onto Belle Isle Bank. A hill‐hole pair on the inner shelf was formed by ice flow from the northwest into Notre Dame Channel. Evidence of widespread glaciotectonism distinguishes this relatively deep shelf from the adjoining, relatively shallow, eastern Canadian shelves, but has strong parallels with parts of the Norwegian continental shelf where methane hydrates maybe played a role in regulating ice‐stream flow.

Relative importance of local enhancement as a search strategy for breeding seabirds: an experimental approach

During the breeding season, seabirds may use many behavioural strategies to reduce the time and energy spent searching for patchily distributed prey. Seabirds breeding at a large colony on the northeast Newfoundland coast (Funk Island), primarily common murres, Uria aalge, and northern gannets, Morus bassanus, predominantly feed on capelin, Mallotus villosus. Within foraging ranges, high-abundance capelin aggregations can be predictably located at deep-water (<40 m) spawning sites during the spawning period in mid- to late July, before which capelin are distributed in small, ephemeral schools. To investigate the 'local enhancement' hypothesis, we conducted a field-based experiment by deploying seabird-mimicking plastic models, or 'decoys', during JulyeAugust in 2009 and 2013, to determine whether breeding murres, gannets and Atlantic puffins, Fratercula arctica, respond to seabird aggregations. We used three decoy treatments: ‘Murre’, ‘Gannet’ and ‘Hotspot’ (both murre and gannet decoys). Pursuit-diving and plunge-diving birds were 4e7 and 17 times, respectively more likely to respond to decoy treatment relative to control periods. All species responded more to conspecifics, or to species within the same foraging guild, during single-species treatments (i.e. Murre, Gannet), but responded similarly (i.e. murres, puffins) or more (i.e. gannets) to the Hotspot treatment, suggesting that predator density in general is an important cue. Fewer murres responded to decoys during capelin spawning relative to pre-spawning, suggesting that murres use local enhancement to a lesser degree when prey can be predictably located nearby. This study provides experimental evidence that seabirds use local enhancement as a search strategy, but to varying degrees under changing prey conditions.

Linking predator diet and prey availability: common murres and capelin in the Northwest Atlantic

We examined the predator-prey interaction between an apex seabird predator, the common murre Uria aalge, and capelin Mallotus villosus, the primary forage fish in the Northwest Atlantic. Sampling of parental deliveries to murre chicks was carried out during the breeding sea- son on Funk Island, located off northeast Newfoundland, Canada. Concurrent vessel surveys were conducted throughout the murre's diving and foraging range around the colony to charac- terize the prey field. Results indicated that in years when capelin was abundant in the size range consumed by murres (suitable capelin), murres delivered large and small fish in similar propor- tions, whereas they delivered more large fish when suitable capelin abundance was low. Consid- ering the relative abundances of small and large suitable capelin, these observations suggest neg- ative prey switching by the predator. Using foraging theory, we derived a model which estimates the probability of delivering a specific prey type (large or small capelin or other prey) to the chick based on prey availabilities. This quantitative model was capable of reproducing the general pat- terns in the observations. It also allowed estimating the shape of the common murre's multispecies functional response (MSFR) which indicated that this would conform to the definition of prey switching, and could then be classified as a Type 3. From an applied perspective, our results support the use of predator diets as indicators of their food base, but also highlight the need for understanding the shape of the predator's MSFR for quantitative development of these types of applications.

Reducing uncertainty on the Grand Bank: tracking and vessel surveys indicate mortality risks for common murres in the North-West Atlantic

Seabirds and other marine animals are at risk from anthropogenic activities that target them directly and those that can harm them incidentally. We integrate year-round tracking and vessel studies to assess risks for a globally important seabird population in the North-West Atlantic. The eastern Canadian Grand Bank has a rich and diverse food web that supports an abundance of apex predators. Major resource extraction industries (hydrocarbon production and fisheries) operate in the area, and, in addition to shipping and hunting, pose risks for marine birds. Understanding the relative risks has been hampered by poor information on bird distribution at sea. Here, we deployed global location sensors (loggers or geolocators) on common murres Uria aalge at Funk Island, the species' largest North American breeding colony. Adults (n=10) were resident on the Grand Bank and in adjacent pelagic waters year round. Within 10 days of leaving the colony, males dispersed offshore (<50 degrees W), southsouth-east of Funk Island. Females departed later and spent 10-47 days in coastal waters before moving offshore. All birds were in the vicinity of offshore oil platforms during November and December, but remained outside the area of the coastal Newfoundland and Labrador murre hunt. Three of six tracked females, but only one of four tracked males moved closer to shore during January and February where vulnerability to the hunt may have increased. Vessel-based surveys confirmed the importance of offshore, shelf-edge habitats for murres in winter. Our results highlight the relative risk to wintering murres from different human activities, providing a sound scientific rationale for focusing conservation and management actions. This information is particularly timely given the continued expansion of deep-water drilling in the North-West Atlantic and increasing risk of oil pollution for seabirds attracted to platforms.

The foraging decisions of a central place foraging seabird in response to fluctuations in local prey conditions

AbstractDuring reproduction, seabirds need to balance the demands of self‐ and offspring‐provisioning within the constraints imposed by central place foraging. To assess behavioral adjustments and tolerances to these constraints, we studied the feeding tactics and reproductive success of common murres (also known as common guillemots) Uria aalge, at their largest and most offshore colony (Funk Island) where parents travel long distances to deliver a single capelin Mallotus villosus to their chicks. We assessed changes in the distance murres traveled from the colony, their proximate foraging locations and prey size choice during two successive years in which capelin exhibited an order of magnitude decrease in density and a shift from aggregated (2004) to dispersed (2005) distributions. When capelin availability was low (2005), parental murres increased their maximum foraging distances by 35% (60 to 81 km) and delivered significantly larger capelin to chicks, as predicted by central place foraging theory. Murres preferred large (&gt;140 mm) relative to small capelin (100–140 mm) in both years, but unexpectedly this preference increased as the relative density of large capelin decreased. We conclude that single prey‐loading murres target larger capelin during long foraging trips as parents are ‘forced’ to select the best prey for their offspring. Low fledgling masses suggest also that increased foraging time when capelin is scarce may come at a cost to the chicks (i.e. fewer meals per day). Murres at this colony may be functioning near physiological limits above which further or sustained adjustments in foraging effort could compromise the life‐time reproductive success of this long‐lived seabird.

TIME BUDGETS OF COMMON MURRES VARY IN RELATION TO CHANGES IN INSHORE CAPELIN AVAILABILITY

Changes in capelin (Mallotus villosus) biology since the 1990s have directly or indirectly induced variable breeding conditions for many seabirds in the Northwest Atlantic. Time budgets of the same individual Common Murres (Uria aalge) were examined in relation to annual variations in the arrival of inshore spawning capelin during three consecutive chick-rearing periods (1998–2000) on Great Island in the Witless Bay Ecological Reserve, Newfoundland, Canada. Despite high foraging effort (longer provisioning trips, lower co-attendance time, and faster colony departure after a brooding bout), chick-feeding rates were low during early chick rearing in 2000 due to a mismatch between early egg hatching and the later inshore arrival of spawning capelin. Time budgets of murres breeding on Great Island were examined in relation to those of murres in other nearby colonies and to long-term changes in capelin spawning behavior across decades (1982–1985 versus 1998–2000). Recent overall provisioning rates on Great Island were comparable to those of other nearby colonies during the same time period (with the exception of Funk Island) and to those reported during the 1980s. However, murres breeding in recent years in the reserve exhibited higher foraging effort, which is likely linked to recent changes in the availability of capelin as a result of later spawning, changes in capelin distribution, and their overall smaller size. Murres currently may be constrained to timing their egg laying such that hatching coincides with the arrival of inshore capelin rather than peak capelin abundance and, thus, are vulnerable to sudden changes in the ecosystem.

An ecosystem-based research program for capelin (Mallotus villosus) in the northwest Atlantic: overview and results

The Northwest Atlantic has been undergoing extensive ecosystem shifts involving oceanographic change and over-fishing. Capelin (Mallotus villosus), the focal forage fish species in this system, is a primary prey for most large predators, including cod, seals, whales and seabirds. Recently, the biology and behaviour of capelin has changed dramatically, although the basis for these changes is not well understood. Through a collaborative, multi-disciplinary research program among university, government and commercial fishers, we investigated mechanisms underlying these changes. In this manuscript we present an integrated overview of this initiative and synthesize key results from research carried out within the program. Our meso-scale study area encompassed the Funk Island Seabird Ecological Reserve, situated 60 km northeast of the Newfoundland coast. We identified 11 off-beach demersal spawning sites of capelin, which were primarily associated with small gravel in bathymetric depressions where temperatures were >2°C. Through comparisons of beach and demersal spawning, we described two distinct developmental strategies of eggs: high mortality and rapid development for beach sites versus low mortality and slow development for demersal sites. Emergence strategies of larvae at demersal sites also differed from beach sites elsewhere in Newfoundland. Integrating results from vessel-based and moored hydroacoustics (Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers) and biological sampling suggested that the diel vertical migratory patterns of capelin and its zooplankton prey are related. Capelin >120 mm total length migrated with larger, longer-distance (0–300 m) crustacean migrators (amphipods, euphausiids), whereas capelin 100 mm, suggesting that the diet of common murre, and perhaps of other seabirds, has the potential for becoming a quantitative indicator of capelin status. Overall, this type of research framework will be important for moving toward ecosystem-based management approaches.

Contrasting foraging tactics by northern gannets (Sula bassana) breeding in different oceanographic domains with different prey fields

In order to forage and to provision offspring effectively, seabirds negotiate a complex of behavioural, energetic, environmental and social constraints. In first tests of GPS loggers with seabirds in North America, we investigated the foraging tactics of free-ranging northern gannets (Sula bassana) at a large and a medium-sized colony that differed in oceanography, coastal position and prey fields. Gannets at Low Arctic colony (Funk Island) 50 km off the northeast coast of Newfoundland, Canada provisioned chicks almost entirely with small forage fish (capelin Mallotus villosus, 89%), while at boreal colony (Bonaventure Island) 3 km from shore in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Quebec, Canada, large pelagic fish dominated parental prey loads (Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus 50%, Atlantic herring Clupea harengus 33%). Mean foraging range and the total distance travelled per foraging trip were significantly greater at the larger inshore colony (Bonaventure) than at the smaller offshore colony (Funk Island; 138 and 452 km vs. 64 and 196 km, respectively). Gannets from Funk Island consistently travelled inshore to forage on reproductive capelin shoals near the coast, whereas foraging flights of birds from Bonaventure were much more variable in direction and destination. Birds from the Low Arctic colony foraged in colder sea surface water than did birds from the boreal colony, and dive characteristics differed between colonies, which is concordent with the difference in prey base. Differences between the colonies reflect oceanographic and colony-size influences on prey fields that shape individual foraging tactics and in turn generate higher level colony-specific foraging “strategies”.

Diets of northern fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis ) chicks in the northwest Atlantic Ocean

Northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) have re- cently expanded their breeding range in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. We studied their diet in their largest colony in the northwest Atlantic on Funk Island, eastern Canada, by collecting dietary samples from chicks dur- ing 1999 and 2000. Fish, primarily capelin (Mallotus villosus), and offal from commercial fisheries were the most common foods in the diets of fulmar chicks. Crustaceans were also common prey fed to the chicks. Squids (Gonatus fabricii) were an important food in 2000. Chick diets varied considerably between the 2 years of the study. The diets of northern fulmar chicks on Funk Island were opportunistic and similar to those of chicks at other colonies in the eastern and northern North Atlantic Ocean. Compared to other regions in the North Atlantic Ocean, the diet of birds on Funk Island seems to be most similar to those from Iceland, and least resemble those from Shetland. Long-term studies of the feeding ecology on northern fulmars may be helpful in discerning factors influencing changes in the species' distribution and abundance.

Consequences of foraging trip duration on provisioning behaviour and fledging condition of common murres Uria aalgae

We examine the provisioning constraints of a pursuit‐diving seabird in a cold ocean regime by comparing the behaviour of common murres Uria aalge rearing chicks at two colonies in the Northwest Atlantic during 1998‐2000. Funk Island is the largest (340,000–400,000 breeding pairs) and most offshore (60 km) colony of common murres in eastern Canada. Seventy‐five percent of the Northwest Atlantic population of common murres breeds on this island. Great Island is one island within the Witless Bay Ecological Reserve, which is the second largest breeding aggregation (100 000 breeding pairs) and is located near‐shore (2 km). The primary forage fish species in Newfoundland waters is capelin Mallotus villosus, which spawns on or near coastal beaches during summer. Therefore, the two study colonies differ in their distance to food resources and colony size. It is within this natural context that we compare: (1) prey types and frequency of delivery (amount of prey), (2) parental time budgets, and (3) the mass and condition (mass/wing length) of fledglings at both colonies. Similarly sized female capelin (100–150 mm) were delivered to chicks at both colonies. Foraging time per day per parent, a proxy of foraging effort, was similar at both colonies (Great Island: 5.1 h; Funk Island: 5.5 h), as was the percentage of time spent with mates (Great Island: 12.3%; Funk Island: 10.9%). Foraging trips, however, were longer at Funk Island (4.1 h) than at Great Island (2.9 h). This resulted in lower feeding rates of chicks (0.17 feeds per h) and poorer condition of fledglings (2.9 g/mm) at Funk Island compared to those at Great Island (0.22 feeds per h; 3.9 g/mm). We hypothesize that provisioning efforts are constrained at Funk Island by (1) distant food resources and increased competitor density, resulting in longer foraging trip durations and (2) the time spent paired with mates at the colony, which may reflect a minimum time required to maintain breeding sites due to higher breeding densities at Funk Island compared to Great Island. Demographic consequences of this poor fledgling condition at Funk Island are unknown, but fledglings may sufficiently accelerate growth at sea due to their closer proximity to an important nursery area. If fledgling survival is compromised, however, the lower potential for growth at Funk Island will impact the entire Northwest Atlantic population of common murres.

Temporal patterns of foraging activities of northern gannets,Morus bassanus, in the northwest Atlantic Ocean

We investigated time allocation and diel rhythms in foraging northern gannets (Morus bassanus). Chick-rearing adults on Funk Island, Newfoundland, Canada, were equipped with different types of data loggers. We found no effects of the devices on the birds' behaviour or breeding success. A total of 25 foraging trips were recorded from 16 birds. Foraging- trip durations (median 13.5 h, range 3.0–39.2 h) showed a bimodal distribution, coinciding with a partitioning of foraging trips into 1- and 2-day trips. Some individuals were consistent in performing either 1- or 2-day trips. During foraging trips, gannets were flying, on average, 44% of the time. Foraging activities exhibited a clear diel rhythm. Flight and diving activity was concentrated during early morning and late afternoon, with reduced activity during midday. Gannets were inactive at night. Flight time between the terminal dive of a foraging trip and arrival at the colony was significantly longer during 2-day trips (94 ± 22 min; mean ± SD) than during 1-day trips (51 ± 22 min). Water masses visited differed between 1- and 2-day trips. We could find no evidence for a clear dual foraging strategy, although birds were exploiting more distant waters during 2-day trips, as has been found for many procellariform species.

Signals from seabirds indicate changing biology of capelin stocks

MEPS Marine Ecology Progress Series Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsTheme Sections MEPS 258:253-261 (2003) - doi:10.3354/meps258253 Signals from seabirds indicate changing biology of capelin stocks Gail K. Davoren*, William A. Montevecchi Biopsychology Programme, Departments of Biology and Psychology, Memorial University, St. John's, Newfoundland A1B 3X9, Canada *Email: z73gkd@ mun.ca ABSTRACT: Key forage species lie at the core of complex marine food webs, providing essential linkages among trophic levels. We examined the interactions of an important forage and commercial fish, capelin Mallotus villosus, and its primary avian predator, the common murre Uria aalge, in the NW Atlantic. Murres are capelin specialists and robust samplers of capelin biology. During the 1990s, the coldest surface-water event in the past 50 to 100 yr occurred in the NW Atlantic (1991), and the eastern Canadian ground-fishery was closed (1992). Concordantly, the biology and behaviour of capelin has undergone very substantial changes. We examined parental food deliveries and production at the world¹s largest common murre colony on Funk Island off the northeast coast of Newfoundland throughout the 1990s. Murres delayed breeding and delivered smaller and lower quality capelin to their chicks. These changes, corroborated with independent fisheries data, resulted in poor condition of murre chicks, indicating significant effects of changing capelin demographics at higher trophic levels. The diets of the murre chicks indicate that the composition of the capelin population has shifted from high size diversity to mainly smaller capelin. We hypothesize that this change resulted from the elimination of the larger-sized and earlier-spawning genotype and that the NW Atlantic capelin population is exhibiting signs of reduced reproductive potential that likely reflects lower spawning biomass. KEY WORDS: Predator-prey interaction · Bio-indicator · Ecosystem dynamics · Common murre · Uria aalge · Capelin · Mallotus villosus Full text in pdf format PreviousNextExport citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in MEPS Vol. 258. Online publication date: August 29, 2003 Print ISSN: 0171-8630; Online ISSN: 1616-1599 Copyright © 2003 Inter-Research.

Distributional patterns of a marine bird and its prey: habitat selection based on prey and conspecific behaviour

We examined distributional patterns of a pursuit-diving seabird, the common murre Uria aalge, and its fish prey, capelin Mallotus villosus, within the avian foraging range of the largest murre colony in eastern North America: Funk Island, Newfoundland. During chick-rearing, the foraging habitat was previously partitioned into: (1) a high-quality area, 45 km from the colony where energy- rich capelin schools were found, which were spatially and temporally persistent and (2) a low-quality area, 60 km from the colony where schools were composed of lower-energy capelin that were ephemeral. At the scale of the foraging range (meso-scale: 1 to 100 km), murres were highly clustered into 25% of the surveyed area, with fewer murres in the low-quality relative to the high-quality area. There were tighter associations among murre and capelin aggregations in the low-quality (1.2 ± 0.2 km) relative to the high-quality area (2.6 ± 0.4 km). This likely resulted from the divergent capelin behaviour and, thus, different foraging strategies used by murres to search for (e.g. memory vs local enhancement) and capture prey. At fine spatial scales (250 m 2 ) within foraging areas, murres were found at lower densities (mode: 2 murres), revealing that interference competition among individuals may be important during prey capture. Modeling revealed that at >50 murres per 250 m 2 in the high- quality area, a murre would have a >90% chance of increasing its foraging efficiency by switching to forage in the low-quality area. Overall, this scale-dependent aggregative behaviour of murres sug- gests that cooperative foraging among conspecifics may be important in locating prey at the scale of a foraging range, or murres may simply aggregate in areas of high prey abundance, but competitive interactions among conspecifics become important at the scale of prey capture.

Pursuit plunging by northern gannets (Sula bassana) feeding on capelin (Mallotus villosus).

Northern gannets (Sula bassana) are considered to obtain prey usually by rapid, vertical, shallow plunge dives. In order to test this contention and investigate underwater foraging behaviour, we attached two types of data-logging systems to 11 parental northern gannets at Funk Island in the North-Wiest Atlantic. We documented, for the first time to the authors' knowledge, gannets performing long, flat-bottomed, U-shaped dives that involved underwater wing propulsion as well as rapid, shallow, V-shaped dives. The median and maximum dive depths and durations were 4.6 and 22.0 m and 8 and 38 s, respectively. Short, shallow dives were usually V-shaped and dives deeper than 8 m and longer than 10 s were usually U-shaped, including a period at constant depth (varying between 4 and 28s with median 8s). Diving occurred throughout the daylight period and deepest dives were performed during late morning. On the basis of motion sensors in the loggers and food collections from telemetered birds, we concluded that extended, deep dives were directed at deep schools of capelin, a small pelagic fish, and we hypothesized that V-shaped dives were aimed at larger, pelagic fishes and squids. Furthermore, these V-shaped dives allowed the birds to surprise their pelagic prey and this may be critical because the maximum swimming speeds of the prey species may exceed the maximum dive speeds of the birds.

Recent changes in the winter distribution and movements of northern Atlantic cod (Gadus morhuaLinnaeus, 1758) on the Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf

Using catch data collected by fishery observers from the otter trawl fleet, we describe changes in the winter distribution of cod on the Newfoundland–Labrador Shelf between 1980 and 1992. We determined the relative abundance of cod in three areas of winter aggregation: south-east of Hamilton Bank, south-east of Belle Isle Bank and south-east of Funk Island Bank. The principal finding was that the cod, during their reproductive period, exhibited significant changes in distribution and behaviour, well before the stock showed signs of collapse. There were three indicators of these changes. First, there was a progressive disappearance of fish from the north with time. Most of the biomass was located in the Hamilton Bank area before 1984. By 1989, most of the fish were found at the Belle Isle Bank and south-east of Funk Island Bank locations and by 1991, only to the south (Funk Island Bank). Second, movements of the prespawning/spawning schools became more limited. Compared with the extensive along-shelf migrations, often covering distances of about 100 km, observed in earlier years, the fish schools after 1989 exhibited less movement to the north. Density of fish in the schools was highest in 1990. By 1991, the schools remained nearly stationary around 49°30′N, near the southern end of their distribution. Third, the schools spread over an increasingly greater range of depths. The greatest density of fish as reflected by high catch rates was generally observed no deeper than 600 m between 1980 and 1988. By 1989–1990, substantial catch rates were observed as deep as 1100 m, particularly to the north although catches continued to be considerable at the shallower depths. These changes in distribution and behaviour were generally coincident with the occurrence of anomalously cold ocean temperatures and heavy ice conditions, but no direct link between these changes and the environment was evident.

Winter distribution and movements of northern Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) along the Newfoundland—Labrador continental shelf edge derived from observations on commercial trawlers

Catch‐effort data recorded by observers aboard commercial trawlers fishing the Newfoundland‐Labrador continental shelf during the winters of 1980–1991 were used to define the distribution and movements of pre‐spawning and spanning Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua. Although cod were widely distributed over the outer continental shelf in the months of January to April, commercial concentrations were consistently located in three areas along the shelf edge. These three areas, constituting only 16% of the 190000 km2 fishing ground for northern cod, were centred north‐east of Belle Isle Bank, north‐east of Funk Island Bank, and between Funk Island Bank and the northern Grand Bank Tow positions with catch rates 5000 kg h‐1 were plotted on a weekly basis to define movements of cod schools during the winters of 1986–1988. It was assumed that change in the collective position of trawlers taking large quantities of cod reflected shoal movements. Analyses indicate that cod moved southeast along the shelf edge in January and February of each year, crossing from NAFO Division 2J into 3K Each March, cod in Division 3K apparently moved northwest against prevailing ocean currents into the Hamilton Bank region of 2J. These movements do not appear to be a direct response to ocean temperature or pack ice conditions, although cod moving along the shelf break were generally in bottom waters of 24°C. We suggest these patterns reflect the migratory behaviour of pre‐spawning and spawning cod.

Oceanographic-related variation in the bone sizes of extinct great auks

We measured the bones of extinct great auks Pinguinis impennis that were killed during recent centuries on Funk Island off the northeast coast of Newfoundland. Comparisons of these measurements with those taken elsewhere suggest that great auks from Funk Island, which is situated in a Low Arctic oceanographic region, were larger than conspecifics from Boreal oceanographic regions. This finding is supported by extant alcid species that inhabit Boreal, Low Arctic or Boreal through High Arctic ocean regions and tend to increase in body size with increasing latitude (generally decreasing sea surface temperature). We suggest that paleoecological sea surface temperatures and food webs may have favored oceanographic-related variation in body sizes of great auks. The variances of the bone sizes of great auks from Funk Island were not less than those of a sample of great auk bones collected from Scandinavian archaeological sites that cover an extensive geographic range and that span seven millenia. This finding is inconsistent with a previously suggested latitudinal cline in body size among great auks in Scandinavia. Research techniques and studies that could address questions of great auk feeding ecology and population genetics are considered.

Activity‐Specific Metabolic Rates of Free‐Living Northern Gannets and Other Seabirds

Field and activity—specific metabolic rates of 20 free—living Northern Gannets (Sula bassanus; mean mass = 3.21 kg) rearing chicks at Funk Island, Newfoundland, were measured using doubly labeled water and activity timers. Field metabolism (FMR) averaged 4865 kJ/d or 6.6 x basal metabolism (BMR). Regression analyses indicated a metabolic rate of 144 kJ/h while at the nest or on water, 349 kJ/h during flight, and 250 kJ/h during diurnal time at sea. These metabolic rates are high, probably because of costs of thermoregulation and flapping flight. BMR was slightly lower than predicted. Statistical analyses of metabolic rates of free—living seabirds indicated that rates are elevated in seabirds in cold—water regions and in seabirds that use flapping flight, but do not vary with phylogenetic order. FMR was correlated strongly with both BMR and metabolism at the nest. Population energy models may gain accuracy if metabolic rates are either expressed as multiples of metabolism at the nest or calculated from allometric equations appropriate for the species' activity pattern, oceanographic regime, and foraging mode.