Funisciurus Research Articles

Monkeypox and its Outbreak

Given that it spreads around the world and not just in nations in west and central Africa, monkey pox is a disease of worldwide public health significance. An uncommon condition known as monkey pox is brought on by infection with the monkey pox virus. The virus that causes monkey pox is related to the virus that causes smallpox, or variola virus. Smallpox symptoms are comparable to those of monkey pox, although they are less severe, and monkey pox seldom results in death. Monkey pox has replaced smallpox as the most significant orthopoxvirus for public health since smallpox was eradicated and smallpox vaccinations were subsequently discontinued. Primarily occurring in tropical rainforests in central and west Africa, monkey pox has been steadily spreading into cities. Numerous rodent species and non-human primates serve as hosts for animals. Outside of the African nations where monkey pox is widespread, the United States saw an epidemic. Boston, Massachusetts, recorded the first case. The first monkey pox epidemic outside of Africa occurred in the United States and contact with sick pet prairie dogs was to blame. Fever, chills, swollen lymph nodes, exhaustion, muscle and backaches, headaches, and respiratory problems are some of the signs and symptoms of monkey pox (e.g. sore throat, nasal congestion, or cough). Multiple instances of monkey pox were discovered in numerous non-endemic nations. Studies are being conducted right now to learn more about the epidemiology, sources of illness, and patterns of transmission. Direct contact with the blood, body fluids, cutaneous or mucosal lesions of infected animals can result in animal-to-human (zoonotic) transfer. Numerous animals in Africa, including rope squirrels, tree squirrels, Gambian pouched rats, dormice, several kinds of monkeys, and others, have shown signs of infection with the monkey pox virus. Although rodents are most probable, the natural reservoir of monkey pox has not yet been discovered. Eating undercooked meat and other diseased animal products is a potential risk factor. People who live in or close to forests may be indirectly or minimally exposed to diseased animals. Close contact with respiratory secretions, skin sores on an infected person, or recently contaminated objects can cause human-to-human transmission. Monkey pox typically takes 6 to 13 days to incubate, but it can take anywhere from 5 to 21 days for symptoms to appear. Other rash disorders, such as chickenpox, measles, bacterial skin infections, scabies, syphilis, and medication-associated allergies, must be taken into account when making a clinical differential diagnosis. As a clinical characteristic, lymphadenopathy during the prodromal stage of the illness can help differentiate monkey pox from chickenpox or smallpox. Given its precision and sensitivity, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the primary laboratory test. Fluids and food should be provided to patients in order to maintain a healthy nutritional condition. Multiple observational studies have shown that the smallpox vaccine is around 85% effective at preventing monkey pox. The major preventative method for monkey pox is increasing public knowledge of risk factors and teaching individuals about the steps they may take to lessen viral exposure. The feasibility and suitability of vaccination for the prevention and control of monkey pox are now being evaluated through scientific investigations. Some nations have policies in place or are creating them to provide vaccines to those who may be at risk, including laboratory staff, members of quick reaction teams, and healthcare professionals.

Monkeypox: Considerations as a New Pandemic Looms

Monkeypox: Considerations as a New Pandemic Looms

Monkeypox: a visual guide

Monkeypox is caused by the monkeypox virus, an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus that is part of the orthopoxvirus genus, which also includes smallpox. Despite its name, which came from its initial discovery in monkeys in a Danish laboratory in 1958, monkeypox can infect various animals, including rope squirrels, tree squirrels, Gambian pouched rats and dormice. […]

Characterization of Monkeypox virus infection in African rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.).

Monkeypox (MPX) is a zoonotic disease endemic in Central and West Africa and is caused by Monkeypox virus (MPXV), the most virulent Orthopoxvirus affecting humans since the eradication of Variola virus (VARV). Many aspects of the MPXV transmission cycle, including the natural host of the virus, remain unknown. African rope squirrels (Funisciurus spp.) are considered potential reservoirs of MPXV, as serosurveillance data in Central Africa has confirmed the circulation of the virus in these rodent species [1,2]. In order to understand the tissue tropism and clinical signs associated with infection with MPXV in these species, wild-caught rope squirrels were experimentally infected via intranasal and intradermal exposure with a recombinant MPXV strain from Central Africa engineered to express the luciferase gene. After infection, we monitored viral replication and shedding via in vivo bioluminescent imaging, viral culture and real time PCR. MPXV infection in African rope squirrels caused mortality and moderate to severe morbidity, with clinical signs including pox lesions in the skin, eyes, mouth and nose, dyspnea, and profuse nasal discharge. Both intranasal and intradermal exposures induced high levels of viremia, fast systemic spread, and long periods of viral shedding. Shedding and luminescence peaked at day 6 post infection and was still detectable after 15 days. Interestingly, one sentinel animal, housed in the same room but in a separate cage, also developed severe MPX disease and was euthanized. This study indicates that MPXV causes significant pathology in African rope squirrels and infected rope squirrels shed large quantities of virus, supporting their role as a potential source of MPXV transmission to humans and other animals in endemic MPX regions.

Introduction of Monkeypox into a Community and Household: Risk Factors and Zoonotic Reservoirs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

An increased incidence of monkeypox (MPX) infections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo was noted by the regional surveillance system in October 2013. Little information exists regarding how MPX is introduced into the community and the factors associated with transmission within the household. Sixty-eight wild animals were collected and tested for Orthopoxvirus. Two of three rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.) were positive for antibodies to Orthopoxviruses; however, no increased risk was associated with the consumption or preparation of rope squirrels. A retrospective cohort investigation and a case-control investigation were performed to identify risk factors affecting the introduction of monkeypox virus (MPXV) into the community and transmission within the home. School-age males were the individuals most frequently identified as the first person infected in the household and were the group most frequently affected overall. Risk factors of acquiring MPXV in a household included sleeping in the same room or bed, or using the same plate or cup as the primary case. There was no significant risk associated with eating or processing of wild animals. Activities associated with an increased risk of MPXV transmission all have potential for virus exposure to the mucosa.

Using Remote Sensing to Map the Risk of Human Monkeypox Virus in the Congo Basin

Although the incidence of human monkeypox has greatly increased in Central Africa over the last decade, resources for surveillance remain extremely limited. We conducted a geospatial analysis using existing data to better inform future surveillance efforts. Using active surveillance data collected between 2005 and 2007, we identified locations in Sankuru district, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) where there have been one or more cases of human monkeypox. To assess what taxa constitute the main reservoirs of monkeypox, we tested whether human cases were associated with (i) rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.), which were implicated in monkeypox outbreaks elsewhere in the DRC in the 1980s, or (ii) terrestrial rodents in the genera Cricetomys and Graphiurus, which are believed to be monkeypox reservoirs in West Africa. Results suggest that the best predictors of human monkeypox cases are proximity to dense forests and associated habitat preferred by rope squirrels. The risk of contracting monkeypox is significantly greater near sites predicted to be habitable for squirrels (OR = 1.32; 95% CI 1.08–1.63). We recommend that semi-deciduous rainforests with oil-palm, the rope squirrel’s main food source, be prioritized for monitoring.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10393-010-0355-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

MONKEYPOX ZOONOTIC ASSOCIATIONS: INSIGHTS FROM LABORATORY EVALUATION OF ANIMALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MULTI-STATE US OUTBREAK

At the onset of the 2003 US monkeypox outbreak, virologic data were unavailable regarding which animal species were involved with virus importation and/or subsequent transmission to humans and whether there was a risk for establishment of zoonotic monkeypox in North America. Similarly, it was unclear which specimens would be best for virus testing. Monkeypox DNA was detected in at least 33 animals, and virus was cultured from 22. Virus-positive animals included three African species associated with the importation event (giant pouched rats, Cricetomys spp.; rope squirrels, Funisciuris sp.; and dormice, Graphiuris sp.). Virologic evidence from North American prairie dogs (Cynomys sp.) was concordant with their suspected roles as vectors for human monkeypox. Multiple tissues were found suitable for DNA detection and/or virus isolation. These data extend the potential host range for monkeypox virus infection and supports concern regarding the potential for establishment in novel reservoir species and ecosystems.

New and Emerging Zoonoses1

Seventy-five percent of emerging infectious diseases are transmitted from animals to humans. The panel focused on different factors that have caused transmission from animals to humans for four diseases in recent years. The monkeypox infections in humans in the United States in 2003 were the first introduction of the disease into a human population outside Africa. This outbreak resulted from expanded global commerce and travel involving exotic rodents. Humans were infected through contact with ill pet prairie dogs, which had been housed with exotic rodents imported from Africa in April 2003. Laboratory evidence suggested that multiple species of imported rodents were infected, including rope squirrels, Gambian rats, and dormice. Through testing by classic laboratory methods and newer nucleic acid, real-time polymerase chain reaction methods, ultimately 37 human cases were identified. The disease in U.S. patients differed from that previously described in human outbreaks in Zaire/Democratic Republic of Congo. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration enacted a ban on importation of African rodents and distribution of prairie dogs in the United States to prevent additional introduction of infected animals. Zoonotic concerns remain, including whether monkeypox was transmitted to other North American mammals that may have come into contact with the imported infected rodents. Ongoing studies are focusing on the pathogenesis of infection, incubation period, length of transmissibility, and expression of disease in rodents—all which remain poorly understood. Several human and animal Ebola virus outbreaks have occurred in West and Central Africa since 2001, causing 313 human cases and 264 deaths. These outbreaks have consisted of multiple simultaneous epidemics caused by different viral strains, with each epidemic resulting from humans' handling of distinct gorilla, chimpanzee, or duiker carcasses. Wildlife die-offs coincided in time and space with human Ebola outbreaks. Based on these results, Ebola virus was proposed as the cause of the rapid local collapse of these wild animal populations. Carcasses were infected by a variety of Ebola virus strains, which suggests that Ebola outbreaks in great apes resulted from multiple virus introductions from an unidentified natural reservoir host. It was proposed that outbreaks in humans could possibly be prevented or predicted by monitoring animal deaths. The California sea otter, a subspecies named on federal lists of threatened species, is found only along the central coast of California. More than 40% of California sea otter deaths are attributed to infectious agents, including some more typically associated with terrestrial animal and human disease, such as Toxoplasma gondii. Brain infection with T. gondii has been documented to cause significant numbers of sea otter deaths in California. Growing evidence supports a land-sea connection associated with contamination of the coastal environment, and the source of infection to sea otters. Domesticated cats, the terrestrial definitive hosts of T. gondii, recently have been found to inhabit the coastal California landscape. From 1997 to 2001, T. gondii seroprevalence was 42% (49/116), in live sea otters and 62% (66/107) in dead otters. Risk factors positively associated with T. gondii seropositivity included male gender; older age; presence in Morro Bay, California; and freshwater outflow exposure. These findings illustrate pathogen pollution in the marine ecosystem and suggest that sea otters could be an indicator species for as-yet-unrecognized human health risks. An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza A virus subtype H7N7 occurred in the Netherlands beginning in February 2003. The Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture instituted an eradication program to control H7N7 avian influenza in poultry (30 million chickens culled; 255 farms; 20% symptomatic). An unexpectedly high number of H7N7 transmissions occurred in persons directly involved in handling infected poultry; evidence for person-to-person transmission was documented. Enhanced surveillance showed that 453 of an estimated 4,500 people thought to be exposed reported health complaints—349 reported conjunctivitis, and 67 reported other complaints. One veterinarian died. After 19 cases had been identified, all workers received mandatory influenza virus vaccination and prophylactic treatment with oseltamivir. Fifty-six percent of reported H7N7 infections arose before the vaccination and treatment program. By the time full prophylactic measures were reinforced (1 week after the first confirmation of human infection), >1,000 persons from all over the Netherlands and from abroad had been exposed. Poor compliance was observed in the use of personal protective equipment among poultry farmers and cullers.

Two new species of suckling lice (Anoplura: Hoplopleuridae) from Nigeria.

Two new species of Werneckia, W. africana , n. sp. and W. nigeriensis , n. sp., are described and illustrated. They were collected from four-striped squirrels, Funisciurus lemniscatus and F. isabella , trapped in Nigeria. Additionally, a key to these new species as well as to W. minuta and W. paraxeri is given.