Spores Research Articles

Grzyby pleśniowe w środowisku człowieka – lekceważone niebezpieczeństwo

IntroductionAccording to Dz. U. nr 75 of 15 June 2002, building law does not allow visible signs of mold fungi in rooms used by people and imposes immediate renovation because of exposure to spores. Which being absorbed via airway and skin may be main sources of three forms: infection, allergy and toxicity. Mycotoxins get to the organism via digestive tract or airway with dust particles or food.Caused illnessesDry eye syndrome, eye socket necrosis, acute, persistent poisoning, impaired immunity, sinusitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma, air and skin allergy, headache, muscle aches, artralgia. Constant irritability, fatigue, insomnia, reduce concentration, memory disorder, even depression. In the digestive tract disturb metabolism, in extreme cases causing cirrhosis, even cancer; disorder pancreas, ovaries, prostate, and lead to sterility, kidney dysfunctions. Growth of fungi is connected with insufficient heating and ventilation. It is derivative socio-economic factors, hygiene level and health care.PurposeIs presentation of the resulting threat from fungal spores and toxins exposure which are inside our houses, schools, hospitals, even our food based on available medical literatureConclusionsMold Fungal toxins have an effect teratogenic, mutagenic and genotoxic inducing damaging many organs in experimental animals. Illnesses and deterioration of health are not connected with spores and toxins exposures. It may lead to wrong diagnosis and not eliminate fungi from the environment, what cause exacerbating symptoms. Fungal infection may be similar to other illneses as: tuberculosis, molluscum contagiosum, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis what can delay proper diagnosis and significantlyreduce chances of survival. Species: <i>Cladosporium, Alternaria, Aspergillus</i> and <i>Penicillium</i> were found in high concentrations ta astmatic patients houses. It was connected with asthma symptoms deterioration in 36% to 48% cases.

First palynological data from the Amat and Plyavinsky Horizons of the Main Devonian field

Research subject. Spores of higher plants from the Early Frasnian deposits of the Main Devonian Field. Material and methods. The work is based on the biostratigraphic method with the following stages: determination of the taxonomic composition of palynospectra, substantiation of the host rocks age, and data correlation. Palynological analysis was conducted using an improved technique by I.Kh. Shumilov and O.P. Telnova, which produced positive results. Results. For the first time, spores of higher plants were found in the sections of the Amatsky and Plavinsky Horizons of the Main Devonian Field. The palynospectra of the Podsnetogorsk layers of the Amat and Snetogorsk layers of the Plyavinsky Horizons were described. The palynospectra of the Podsnetogorsk layers are correlated with the palynoassemblage from the upper part of the Timan, and the Snetogorsk layers are correlated with the palynoassembly of the Sargaev Horizons, established in the Timan-Pechora province. The identified palynospectra complement the associations of vertebrate and invertebrate fauna, as well as rare macroflora, previously studied in these sections. The palynospectra from the Snetogorsk beds are correlated with the palynoassemblage of the Cristatisporites deliquescens – Archaeoperisaccus mennerii regional zone of the Timan-Pechora province. The palynozone characterizes the stratigraphic interval corresponding to the rugosa–transitans conodont zones (middle–upper part of the Sargaev Horizon). Conclusions. The established palynoassemblage from the Snetogorsk layers corresponds to the middle part of the Sargaev Horizon – the stratigraphic interval of the rugosa conodont zone. For the first time, the conducted palynological studies established a binding between the regional stratigraphic unit of the Main Devonian Field and the standard conodont zone.

Microbial evaluation of cooked fufu sold in some major markets in Owo metropolis, Ondo state, Nigeria

Fufu (Cassava dough-like food) is one of Nigeria's most consumed staple foods, particularly in the southern parts of the country. This study aims to detect and quantify the microorganisms in cooked fufu sold in major Owo, Ondo State marketplaces. Freshly cooked fufu samples of about 50/gram wrapped in nylon were aseptically collected from sellers in three major Owo markets and transported to the Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA) Crop, Soil, and Pest Management Department lab for analysis. For bacteria, Nutrient Agar (NA) plates were incubated at 37+2ºC for 24 hours, whereas PDA plates for yeast and mould were incubated at 27+2ºC for 48 hours. Count and record the colonies generating spores (cfu/g) from viable bacterium cells and fungal spores per gram of each fufu sample after incubation. Purified cultures of each isolate were obtained through subcultures and stored at 4 ºC for biochemical testing. Cooked fufu samples found mostly lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus plantarum, L. fermentum, L. brevis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Streptococcus thermophiles, S. mutans, Pediococcus cerevisiae, Staphylococcus hominis, Bacillus pumilus, acidophilus, L. lactis, Micrococcus spp., B. subtilis, Diplococcus spp, S. epidermidis, and Bifidobacterium and two yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zygosaccharomyces spp. Some main markets in Owo metropolis sold cooked fufu samples with bacterial loads ranging from 0.2 to 2.3 × 107 CFU/g, and yeast loads from 1.6 to 4.55 × 107 CFU/g. Good hygiene can increase the safety and quality of cooked fufu sold at Owo main markets and lower the danger of food-borne illnesses.

Efficacy of rhizobacteria Paenibacillus polymyxa SY42 for the biological control of Atractylodes chinensis root rot

Atractylodes chinensis is one of the most commonly used bulk herbs in East Asia; however, root rot can seriously affect its quality and yields. In contrast to chemical pesticides, biological control strategies are environmentally compatible and safe. For this study, 68 antagonistic bacterial strains were isolated from the rhizospheres of healthy Atractylodes chinensis. Strain SY42 exhibited the most potent fungicidal activities, with inhibition rates against F. oxysporum, F. solani, and F. redolens of 67.07 %, 63.40 % and 68.45 %, respectively. Through morphological observation and molecular characterization, strain SY42 was identified as Paenibacillus polymyxa. The volatile organic components (VOCs) produced by SY42 effectively inhibited the mycelial growth of pathogenic fungi through diffusion. SY42 significantly inhibited the germination of pathogenic fungal spores. Following co-culturing with SY42, the mycelium of the pathogenic fungus was deformed, folded, and even ruptured. SY42 could produce cellulases and proteases to degrade fungal cell walls. Pot experiments demonstrated the excellent biocontrol efficacy of SY42. This study revealed that P. polymyxa SY42 inhibited pathogenic fungi through multiple mechanisms, which verified its utility as a biocontrol agent for the control of A. chinensis root rot.

Translocation and survival of trunk injected Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) in healthy date palm trees

ObjectiveThe date palm, Phoenix dactylifera L., is an ancient and valuable tree that provides food and other products. The date palm trees are attacked by several pests, including the red palm weevil, which is devastating to date palm plantations. Knowledge of the functionality of entomopathogenic fungi, including Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) species, in the tree trunk is critical for controlling date palm weevil and other pests. The goal of this study was to assess the movement of the entomopathogenic fungus, B. bassiana, within the date palm tree. MethodsBeauveria bassiana (BbSA-4) mixed with food colors was trunk-injected using a balloon injector into healthy date palm plants. Trunks were cut into one-meter logs 2, 20, and 86 days post-injection. Each log was further dissected into four quarters to examine the present of the fungus. The appearance of food colors and the detection of fungal spores at different heights from the point of injection revealed the translocation of B. bassiana within the trunk. The samples were taken from several locations where food color could be visible, and the distance traveled by the fungal spores was measured. ResultsThe injected palm tissue samples were cultured on PDA media in the laboratory, and the present of fungal spores was confirmed. B. bassiana (BbSA-4) was found to be surviving in all treated date palm trees. The survival rate of isolate BbSA-4 averaged 70.5%, 34.9%, and 13.9% from dissected trunks examined at 2, 20, and 86 days, respectively, after injection. Isolate BbSA-4 was more apparent in the trunk after spiral injected than bottom injection. The findings revealed that using an entomopathogenic fungus as an endophytic to supplement IPM programs could be beneficial.

Multi-proxy evidence for woodland clearance in northeast Northumberland (England) during the Iron Age

Pollen diagrams covering the Bronze Age to Roman period from northeast Northumberland are scarce. We present a 14C-dated pollen record from a peat-filled forest hollow in Chillingham Wild Cattle Park, northeast Northumberland, that spans the Iron Age. For the first time for this part of Northumberland, fungal spores are also analysed to investigate whether clearances took place in the context of crop cultivation or pastoralism. The pollen diagram shows significant woodland cover during the Late Bronze Age, with small-scale landscape openness potentially representing crop cultivation and animal grazing under a tree canopy. A local clearance event, with arboreal pollen falling to 13.2%, is radiocarbon dated to the late Early to Middle Iron Age, likely coinciding with the construction and occupancy of the nearby Ros Castle hillfort. A significant rise in dung fungal spores and the presence of Plantago and other open vegetation taxa indicate animal husbandry played an important role in this clearance phase. A subsequent large decrease in dung fungi and a small rise in arboreal pollen may reflect a degree of abandonment of the area after the climate cooled. Peat formation ceased in the late Middle to Late Iron Age as the hollow filled up. Limited renewed peat growth occurred in the last century or so, after peat shrinkage due to drying and consequent oxidation provided the possibility for renewed peat formation within the hollow.

Pleiotropic functions of SscA on the asexual spore of the human pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus

ABSTRACT Asexual spores, called conidia, are key reproductive fungal particles that enable survival in harsh environmental conditions or host systems. The conidia can infect humans, animals, and plants to cause various fungal diseases. Transcription factors, including VosA, WetA, and SscA, have key roles in conidia formation and long-term survival in Aspergillus nidulans. Herein, we report the pleiotropic functions of SscA in the conidia of the human pathogen A. fumigatus. The deletion of sscA increased conidia formation despite decreased fungal growth. Absence of sscA impaired long-term survival and reduced spore resistance to various stresses, including heat, UV, and oxidation. Transcriptomic analyses showed that SscA involved the mRNA expression of cell wall organisation-related genes. Importantly, the sscA deletion mutant conidia contained an increased amount of β-glucan and chitin compared to wild type conidia. In addition, conidial gliotoxin production was decreased in the sscA deletion strain. Overall, SscA has pleiotropic roles in conidia formation, maturation and dormancy and mycotoxin production in A. fumigatus.

Soil Physicochemical Characteristics and Spore Density of Indigenous Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in Different Vegetation Patches of a Marginal Upland in Central Philippines

To show the importance of plant-microbe association in stressed tropical landscapes, the study evaluated the physicochemical characteristics and indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) spore density in selected vegetation patches of marginal upland soils in Central Philippines. Five quadrats were used in the study, namely Andropogon aciculatus (control plot), Imperata cylindrica, Chromolaena odorata, Melastoma malabathricum and mixed vegetation patch. Results showed that soils in the studied vegetation patches had different physicochemical characteristics and AMF spore density. Although all patches had clay soil texture and comparable water-holding capacity, mixed vegetation patch had moderate compaction (1.33 g cm-3) and higher porosity (50.31%) compared with the other patches, which had extreme compaction (1.37-1.65 g cm-3) and lower porosity (37.74-48.76%). In terms of chemical properties, soils in different patches had moderate (5.69) to strongly acidic pH (5.13), moderate organic matter (2.69-2.91%) levels, low P (2.67-3.94 ppm) content and above critical K levels (0.2-1.2 cmol+ kg-1). Results also revealed that C. odorata patch had the highest spore density count (11.33 spores 100 g-1), followed by mixed vegetation (9 spores 100 g-1), M. malabathricum (8.33 spores 100 g-1), and A. aciculatus patch having the lowest spore density count (4 spores 100 g-1). The significant spore density variability was attributed to the differences in soil’s physicochemical characteristics among the different vegetation patches and AMF host specificity. Spores detection, therefore, indicated AMF presence and helped the adaptation mechanism of the natural vegetation in this degraded upland.

Segmentation of wheat scab fungus spores based on CRF_ResUNet++

Accurate segmentation of tiny spore pictures is a significant technique in computer-aided evaluation of wheat scab. A CRF_ResUNet++ spore segmentation model using UNet++ as the fundamental framework is proposed to address the issues of uneven brightness, low spore-background contrast, and spore adhesion in microscopically collected Fusarium spore images. ResNet and fully connected conditional random fields (CRF) are combined in this model to address these issues. First, a residual block ResNet is introduced into UNet++ to enhance the propagation of features and extract more spore detail information. Next, the spore image is initially segmented using UNet++ with an encoder-decoder structure. Finally, postprocessing is carried out using a fully connected conditional random field model to obtain more precise edges and complete spore regions. The laboratory collection dataset test results revealed that the F1-score and MIoU reached 0.943 and 0.925, respectively, with an average detection Precision improvement of 3.2 % over the original UNet++ model. In comparison to existing models, the suggested model can segment spore pictures in challenging circumstances, such as when they contain independent and inter-adherent spores, with excellent computer vision processing capabilities effects and objective evaluation metric segmentation effects. In conclusion, the method in this study can reliably detect and segment adherent wheat scab spores in complex backgrounds, which offers critical technical support for automatic detection of adherent wheat scab spores and early spore concentration prediction in complex environments in the field.

Size spectra of the edaphic fauna of typical Argiudol soils of the Rolling Pampa Region, Argentina.

Soil-dwelling organisms populate the spaces-referred to as interstices-between the litter on the soil surface and the pores in the soil's organo-mineral matrix. These organisms have pivotal roles in soil ecosystem functions, such as the breakdown and decomposition of organic matter, the dispersal of bacterial and fungal spores and biological habitat transformation. These functions, in turn, contribute to broader ecosystem services like carbon and nutrient cycling, soil organic matter regulation and both chemical and physical soil fertility.This study provides morphological data pertaining to a range of soil organism sizes, specifically in Argiudol soils subjected to varying levels of agricultural activity in the Rolling Pampas Region, one of the world's most extensive and fertile plains.The primary focus is on soil microarthropods-namely, Acari (mites) and Collembola (springtails)-with a body width of less than 2 mm. These organisms constitute the majority of life in the intricate soil pore network. Additionally, the study documents species of earthworms (Oligochaeta, Crassiclitelata), recognised as ecosystem engineers for their ability to create physical channels in the soil matrix and to distribute organic matter. Moreover, the study includes measurements of morphological traits of soil-dwelling "macrofauna" (organisms with a body width greater than 2 mm), which are also implicated in various soil ecosystem functions. These include population regulation by apex predators, organic matter decomposition, biogenic structure formation, nutrient mobilisation and herbivory. In this paper, we report both the geographical locations and individual measurements of key morphological traits for over 7,000 specimens, covering a range of soil-dwelling organisms. These include springtails (Entognatha, Collembola), mites (Arachnida, Acari), earthworms (Oligochaeta, Crassiclitellata) and additional soil macrofauna. All specimens were collected from typical Argiudol soils located in three distinct agricultural systems characterised by varying levels of land-use intensity. To our knowledge, no other dataset exists providing this information for the Argentinian Pampas.

Miocene Climatic Optimum fungal record and plant-based CREST climatic reconstruction from southern McMurdo Sound, Antarctica

Abstract. Deep-time palynological studies are necessary to evaluate plant and fungal distribution under warmer-than-present scenarios such as those of the Middle Miocene. Previous palynological studies from southern McMurdo Sound, Antarctica (SMS), have provided unique documentation for Neogene environments in the Ross Sea region during a time of pronounced global warming. The present study builds on these studies and provides a new climate reconstruction using the previously published SMS pollen and plant spore data. Additionally, 44 SMS samples were reanalyzed with a focus on the fungal fraction of the section to evaluate the fungal distribution under warmer than present conditions. The probability-based climate reconstruction technique (CREST) was applied to provide a new plant-based representation of regional paleoclimate for this Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO) locality. CREST reconstructs a paleoclimate that is warmer and significantly wetter than present in SMS during the MCO, with mean annual precipitation reconstructed at 1147 mm yr−1 (95 % confidence range: 238–2611 mm yr−1) and a maximum mean annual temperature of 10.3 ∘C (95 % confidence range: 2.0–20.2 ∘C) for the warmest intervals of the MCO. The CREST reconstruction fits within the Cfb Köppen–Geiger climate class during the MCO of SMS. This new reconstruction agrees with previous reconstructions using various geochemical proxies. The fungal palynological analyses yielded surprising results, with only a single morphotype recovered, in low abundance, with concentrations ranging up to 199 fungi per gram of dried sediment. The taxa present belongs to the Apiosporaceae family and are known to be adapted to a wide range of climate and environmental conditions. As fungi are depauperate members of the SMS MCO palynofloras and because the one morphotype recovered is cosmopolitan, using the fungi record to confirm a narrow Köppen–Geiger climate class is impossible. Overall, the study demonstrates refinement of plant-based paleoclimatic reconstructions and sheds light on the limited presence of fungi during the MCO in Antarctica.

Origin of secondary fatty alcohols in atmospheric aerosols in a cool–temperate forest based on their mass size distributions

Abstract. Fatty alcohols (FAs) are major components of surface lipids in plant leaves and serve as surface-active organic aerosols (OAs), which can act as primary biological aerosol particles (PBAPs). To elucidate the origin and formation of secondary fatty alcohols (SFAs) in atmospheric aerosols, their mass size distribution in aerosol samples obtained from a deciduous forest canopy was measured in spring, summer and autumn. The SFAs showed the highest concentration in spring (growing season), with n-nonacosan-10-ol being the most abundant. In spring and summer, the size peak of n-nonacosan-10-ol was in the particle size range >10.0 µm, whereas it was in the 1.9–3.0 µm range in autumn. The size distribution of n-nonacosan-10-ol did not show any significant correlation with that of the known biogenic tracers of pollen, soil and fungal spores in spring and summer. The overall results, together with SFAs measured in plant leaves, as well as the literature, suggest that SFAs originate mostly from plant waxes and that leaf senescence status is likely an important factor controlling the size distribution of SFAs. This study provides new insights into the possible sources of PBAPs and their effects on the ice nucleation activity of aerosols based on seasonal changes in particle size.

Combating Black Fungus: Using Allicin as a Potent Antifungal Agent against Mucorales.

Invasive fungal (IF) diseases are a leading global cause of mortality, particularly among immunocompromised individuals. The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic further exacerbated this scenario, intensifying comorbid IF infections such as mucormycoses of the nasopharynx. In the work reported here, it is shown that zygomycetes, significant contributors to mycoses, are sensitive to the natural product allicin. Inhibition of Mucorales fungi by allicin in solution and by allicin vapor was demonstrated. Mathematical modeling showed that the efficacy of allicin vapor is comparable to direct contact with the commercially available antifungal agent amphotericin B (ampB). Furthermore, the study revealed a synergistic interaction between allicin and the non-volatile ampB. The toxicity of allicin solution to human cell lines was evaluated and it was found that the half maximal effective concentration (EC50) of allicin was 25-72 times higher in the cell lines as compared to the fungal spores. Fungal allicin sensitivity depends on the spore concentration, as demonstrated in a drop test. This study shows the potential of allicin, a sulfur-containing defense compound from garlic, to combat zygomycete fungi. The findings underscore allicin's promise for applications in infections of the nasopharynx via inhalation, suggesting a novel therapeutic avenue against challenging fungal infections.

THE INFLUENCE OF PENICILLIUM FUNGI ISOLATED FROM SOYBEAN ROOTS ON THE SYMBIOTIC SYSTEM “GLYCINE MAX – BRADYRHIZOBIUM JAPONICUM” AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY

Objective. Identify new strains of Penicillium endophytic fungi by morphological and cultural properties, study their influence on the symbiotic system “Glycine max – Bradyrhizobium japonicum” and soybean productivity. Methods. Microbiological (cultivation of endophytic fungi, preparation of spore suspensions, determination of spore titre in suspensions, light microscopy), gas chromatographic (determination of nitrogenase activity of soybean nodules), vegetation and field small-plot experiments (study of the effect of endophytic fungi on symbiotic and morphometric parameters of soybean plants and crop yield when growing on sod-podzolic soil), statistical. Results. New strains of Penicillium endophytic fungi are attributed to the species P. funiculosum Thom, P. variabile Sopp, P. glauco-lanosum Chalabuda, and P. steckii Zaleski based on their morphological and cultural characteristics. Under the conditions of the vegetation experiment, the positive influence of the studied strains on the symbiotic parameters of soybeans was shown. A tendency towards an increase in the number of nodules versus the control in all variants, an increase in the mass of nodules in the variants when soybean seeds were treated with spores of P. variabile 20173 and P. funiculosum 20312 by 28.4 % and 36.4 %, respectively, an increase in the nitrogenase activity of nodules by 29.8–38.5 % in variants with the use of P. stekii 2204, P. glauco-lanosum 20401, P. variabile 20173 was registered. The results of the study of soybean symbiotic parameters under the conditions of the field experiment generally confirmed the corresponding data of the vegetation experiment. Inoculation of soybean seeds with spores of Penicillium endophytic fungi contributed to an increase of the morphometric parameters of plants, namely: height — by 4.6–6.2 cm in all variants of the experiment, above-ground mass of dried plants — by 11.1–19.0 % when treated with P. stekii 2204, P. glauco-lanosum 20401, P. variabile 20173, mass of dry roots — by 13.2 % and 18.4 % with P. funiculosum 20312 and P. variabile 20173. The results of the field experiment proved the positive influence of new strains of endophytic fungi on soybean yield: when soybean seeds were inoculated with P. variabile 20173, P. funiculosum 20312 and P. stekii 2204, the increase in grain productivity was on average from 11.8 % to 17.3 %. The weight of 1000 grains increased by 3.8–5.1 % in variants using P. variabile 20173, P. glauco-lanosum 20401, P. stekii 2204. Conclusion. Penicillium endophytic fungi, which belong to the species P. funiculosum, P. variabile, P. glauco-lanosum and P. stekii, were isolated from the tissues of soybean roots. It was found that Penicillium endophytic fungi have a positive influence on the functioning of the symbiotic system “Glycine max – Bradyrhizobium japonicum” and soybean yield.

Mannitol improves Monascus pigment biosynthesis with rice bran as a substrate in Monascus purpureus.

To reduce the production cost of Monascus pigments (MPs), the utilization of rice bran (RB), an agricultural waste product, as a substrate in submerged fermentation was conducted in this study. To improve MP production, different nutritional ingredients including mannitol (Man), NH4NO3 (AN), ZnSO4 (Zn), and optimization (Opti), which was a synthesis of the three above ones, were added in rice bran (RB) medium. The yields of MPs, pigment constituents, and growth and development of Monascus purpureus M9 were investigated in this study. Man had the maximum color value of 3,532 U/g, which was 18.69 times more than that of RB and reached up to 76.65% of the value of rice (Rice) fermentation. Man significantly increased the production of two orange pigments, monascorubrin and rubropunctatin, of which the yields were 69.49 and 95.36% of the counterpart of Rice. The biomass and colony diameter of Opti presented the maximum value among different groups. AN and RB induced more asexual spore formation, whereas Opti and Man promoted sexual spore production. Comparative transcriptomic analysis showed that different nutritional ingredients led to changes in pigment production, promoting the growth and development of M. purpureus M9 through the regulation of related gene expression. Man and Opti improved MP production by regulating the primary metabolism, including the Embden-Meyerhof pathway (EMP), the pentose phosphate (PP) pathway, the tricarboxylic (TCA) cycle, fatty acid degradation (FAD), fatty acid biosynthesis (FAB), amino acid metabolism (AAM), and fructose and mannose metabolism (FMM), to provide the precursors (acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA) for MP biosynthesis. This study presents a low-cost method for increasing MP production and explains the molecular mechanisms of different nutritional ingredients for enhancing MP biosynthesis.

The improved resistance of germinated spores to ultraviolet irradiation: Comparison with chlorine

Fungi outbreaks in water will include a series of processes, including spore aggregation, germination, biofilm, and finally present in a mixed state in the aquatic environment. More attention is paid to the control of dispersed fungal spores, however, there was little knowledge of the control of germinated spores. This study investigated the inactivation kinetics and mechanism of ultraviolet (UV) treatment for fungal spores with different germination percentages compared with dormant spores. The results indicated that the inactivation rate constants (k) of spores with 5%–45% germination were 0.0278–0.0299 cm2/mJ for Aspergillus niger and 0.0588–0.0647 cm2/mJ for Penicillium polonicum, which were lower than those of dormant spores. It suggested that germinated spores were more tolerant to UV irradiation than dormant spores, and it may be due to the defensive barrier (upregulated pigments) and some reductive substance (upregulated enoyl reductase) by absorbing UV or reacting with reactive oxygen species according to transcriptome analysis. Compared to dormant spores, the k-UV of germinated spores decreased by 18.17%–26.56% for Aspergillus niger, which was less than k-chlorine (62.33%–69.74%). A slighter decrease in k-UV showed UV irradiation can efficiently control fungi contamination, especially when dormant spores and germinated spores coexisted in actual water systems. This study indicates that more attention should be paid to germinated spores.

Regulation of Macrophage Polarization in Allergy by Noncoding RNAs.

Allergy is a type 2 immune reaction triggered by antigens known as allergens, including food and environmental substances such as peanuts, plant pollen, fungal spores, and the feces and debris of mites and insects. Macrophages are myeloid immune cells with phagocytic abilities that process exogenous and endogenous antigens. Upon activation, they can produce effector molecules such as cytokines as well as anti-inflammatory molecules. The dysregulation of macrophage function can lead to excessive type 1 inflammation as well as type 2 inflammation, which includes allergic reactions. Thus, it is important to better understand how macrophages are regulated in the pathogenesis of allergies. Emerging evidence highlights the role of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) in macrophage polarization, which in turn can modify the pathogenesis of various immune-mediated diseases, including allergies. This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding this topic and considers three classes of ncRNAs: microRNAs, long ncRNAs, and circular ncRNAs. Understanding the roles of these ncRNAs in macrophage polarization will provide new insights into the pathogenesis of allergies and identify potential novel therapeutic targets.

Effects of copper and cadmium on stream leaf decomposition: evidence from a microcosm study.

We seek to understand how copper and cadmium act on leaf litter decomposition by their effects on microbial conditioning and litter fragmentation by invertebrates. In this study, we evaluated, in an integrated manner, different biological elements responsible for functioning of streams. Thus, we performed a microcosm assay with different concentrations for the two metals and their combination, evaluating their effects on fungi sporulation rate, consumption rate by shredders, and, consequently, the leaf litter decomposition rates. Sporulation rates were affected by all copper concentrations tested 10 × = 16µg L-1 and 25 × = 40µg L-1) but significantly reduced only at the highest concentration of cadmium (25 × = 22.5µg L-1). Increased copper and cadmium concentrations reduced the consumption of leaf litter by Phylloicus at 60%. The concentrations (10 × and 25 ×) of both metals resulted in a reduction in decomposition rates. When combined, copper and cadmium negatively affected microbial conditioning, consumption by shredders, and leaf litter decomposition. Increases in concentrations of copper and cadmium directly affected organic matter decomposition in aquatic environments. Thus, the presence of a high concentration of heavy metals in aquatic environments alters the functioning of ecosystems. As trace-elements occur in a combined manner in environments, our results show that the combined effects of different metals potentiate the negative effects on ecosystem processes.

Palynological reconstruction of the habitat and diet of Iguanodon bernissartensis in the Lower Cretaceous Morella Formation, NE Iberian Peninsula

The recent discovery of iguanodontid remains from the new Palau-3 site in the Lower Cretaceous Morella Formation is the most complete non-articulated skeleton of Iguanodon bernissartensis on the NE Iberian Peninsula. To elucidate the paleoenvironment of the Palau-3 site, a palynological analysis was carried out on matrix samples collected from around the skeleton. The palynological assemblage is found to correspond to an upper Barremian age. While the assemblage is composed of bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, freshwater algae, dinoflagellate cysts and fungal spores, the palynoflora is mostly dominated by the Cheirolepidiaceae conifer (Classopollis) and Anemiaceae fern (mainly Cicatricosisporites) families. The absence of angiosperm pollen in this flora is also noteworthy, as angiosperm remains have been recorded previously elsewhere in the Morella Formation. At the Palau-3 site, the fronds of Cyatheaceae and Anemiaceae ferns, as well as the foliage of the Cheirolepidiaceae conifers, may have been the major sources of nutrition of I. bernissartensis and other herbivorous iguanodontians. The paleobotany of the four major localities bearing I. bernissartensis remains in western Europe was surveyed to determine the habitat and feeding preferences of this styracosternan dinosaur. These localities are Bernissart (Belgium), Isle of Wight (England), Nehden (Germany), and Morella (Spain). In accordance to this survey, the habitat preferences of I. bernissartensis and association with specific plant communities show that this ornithopod species was adapted to a wide variety of paleoenvironments.

Antifungal Activity of Streptomyces spp. Extracts In Vitro and on Post-Harvest Tomato Fruits against Plant Pathogenic Fungi

Plant pathogenic fungi are the most important cause of losses in agriculture. In the context of the overuse of synthetic fungicides, natural products are an encouraging alternative to control these plant pathogenic fungi. In this study, we tested the antifungal capacity of four strains of the genus Streptomyces against the plant pathogenic fungi Alternaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea and Fusarium oxysporum. We also investigated the effect of applying the extracts with the highest antifungal activities in a post-harvest setting for the control of B. cinerea on cherry tomato fruits. The results revealed the ability of these strains, especially Streptomyces netropsis A52M, to inhibit in vitro the growth and, in some cases, the sporulation of plant pathogenic fungi. The protective effect of the S. netropsis A52M extracts on post-harvest cherry tomato fruits infected with B. cinerea was demonstrated. In addition, when grown in co-culture, we observed an interesting phenomenon in which the Streptomyces mycelium physically encapsulated the fungal mycelium, contributing to its inhibition. This outcome offers the potential for research into the role of physical microbial interactions in fungal biocontrol. To sum up, the findings outlined here for the interactions between Streptomyces strains and plant pathogenic fungi are a promising, safer, and more sustainable biocontrol alternative to chemicals for agriculture. This is of particular interest in the protection of perishable agricultural products during the post-harvest phase.