Fungal Food Research Articles

Antifungal activity of a de novo synthetic peptide and derivatives against fungal food contaminants.

The development of novel solutions to fight microbial food contaminants rests upon two pillars, which are the development of resistant strains and consumers' desire for a reduced consumption of synthetic drugs. Natural antimicrobial peptides possess the qualities to overcome these issues. De novo synthesis of novel antifungal compounds is a major progress that has been facilitated by the identification of parameters involved in the antimicrobial activity. A 14-residue peptide named KK14, with the sequence KKFFRAWWAPRFLK-NH2 , was designed and inhibited conidial germination and fungal growth of food contaminants within the range 6.25 to 50μg/ml and 6.25 to 100μg/ml, respectively. The study of three analogues of the peptide highlighted the role of some residues in the structural conformation of the peptide and its antifungal activity. The substitution of a Pro residue with Arg increased the helical content of the peptide not only its antifungal activity but also its cytotoxicity. The insertion of an unnatural bulky residue β-diphenylalanine or a full d-enantiomerization overall increased the antifungal potency. The four peptides showed similar behaviour towards salt increase, heat treatment, and pH decrease. Interestingly, the denantiomer remained the most active at high pH and after proteolytic digestion. The four peptides did not present haemolytic activity up to 200μg/ml but had different behaviours of cytotoxicity. These differences could be crucial for potential application as pharmaceutical or food preservatives.

Pseudogymnoascus destructans: Causative Agent of White-Nose Syndrome in Bats Is Inhibited by Safe Volatile Organic Compounds.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is caused by Pseudogymnoascus destructans, a psychrophilic fungus that infects hibernating bats and has caused a serious decline in some species. Natural aroma compounds have been used to control growth of fungal food storage pathogens, so we hypothesized that a similar strategy could work for control of P. destructans. The effectiveness of exposure to low concentrations of the vapor phase of four of these compounds was tested on mycelial plugs and conidiospores at temperatures of 5, 10 and 15 °C. Here we report the efficacy of vapor phase mushroom alcohol (1-octen-3-ol) for inhibiting mycelial and conidiospore growth of P. destructans at 0.4 and 0.8 µmol/mL and demonstrate that the R enantiomer of this compound is more effective than the S enantiomer, supporting the finding that biological systems can be sensitive to stereochemistry. Further, we report that vapor phase leaf aldehyde (trans-2-hexenal), a common aroma compound associated with cut grass odors and also the major volatile compound in extra virgin olive oil, is more effective than mushroom alcohol. At 0.05 µmol/mL, trans-2-hexenal is fungicidal to both conidiospores and mycelia of P. destructans.

Potential influence of birds on soil testate amoebae in the Arctic

Birds can be an important agent of environmental change in High Arctic ecosystems, particularly due to the role of seabirds as a vector transferring nutrients from the marine to terrestrial realms. The soils of bird nesting sites are known to host distinct plant communities but the consequences of bird modification for microorganisms are much less clear. Our focus here is testate amoebae: a widely-distributed group of protists with significant roles in many aspects of ecosystem functioning. We compared the testate amoeba assemblages of a site on Spitsbergen (Svalbard archipelago) affected by nesting birds, with nearby control sites. We found differences in assemblage between sites, typified by reduced relative abundance of Phryganella acropodia and Centropyxis aerophila in bird-modified soils. These changes may reflect a reduced availability of fungal food sources. We found no evidence for differences in assemblage diversity or test concentration between bird-modified and control soils. Our dataset is small but results provide the first evidence for the potential effect of bird modification of soils on testate amoebae in the Arctic. Results show only limited similarity to experimental studies of nutrient addition, implying that response mechanisms may be more complicated than simply additional nutrient supply.

The antifungal activity of extracts of Osmundea pinnatifida, an edible seaweed, indicates its usage as a safe environmental fungicide or as a food additive preventing post-harvest fungal food contamination.

In the present work, we explored the antifungal activity of the wild edible seaweed Osmundea pinnatifida (Rhodophyta) collected from the Portuguese coast, which is used as a food seasoning in Scotland, Ireland and Portugal. We performed a sequential extraction of the seaweed components with methanol, dichloromethane and n-hexane. These extracts showed an antifungal activity against Alternaria infectoria and Aspergillus fumigatus. The n-hexane fraction of the seaweed inhibited the sporulation of Alternaria infectoria at 30 μg mL-1 and induced a statistically significant (P < 0.001) decrease in β-glucan content. Furthermore, liquid cultures of Aspergillus fumigatus supplemented with 10 μg mL-1 of the n-hexane fraction showed abnormal conidiophores, completely devoid of phialides and conidia associated with a decrease of 18.3% in the chitin content (P < 0.01). The n-hexane fraction analysis by GC-MS revealed that it includes palmitic acid (29.6%), phytol isomer 1 (12.8%), oleic acid (9.6%), stearic acid (6.2%) and d-(-)-tagatofuranose (4.1%), among other compounds present at lower concentrations. The present study reveals Osmundea pinnatifida as a promising source of biologically active compounds inhibiting fungal growth and conidiation, the main dispersal mechanism of filamentous fungi as Aspergillus fumigatus and Alternaria alternata, revealing its utility both as an environmental fungicide against fungal diseases and as a food preservative against fungal post-harvest food contamination.

Probability models for growth and aflatoxin B1 production as affected by intraspecies variability in Aspergillus flavus

The probability of growth and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) production of 20 isolates of Aspergillus flavus were studied using a full factorial design with eight water activity levels (0.84–0.98 aw) and six temperature levels (15–40 °C). Binary data obtained from growth studies were modelled using linear logistic regression analysis as a function of temperature, water activity and time for each isolate. In parallel, AFB1 was extracted at different times from newly formed colonies (up to 20 mm in diameter). Although a total of 950 AFB1 values over time for all conditions studied were recorded, they were not considered to be enough to build probability models over time, and therefore, only models at 30 days were built. The confidence intervals of the regression coefficients of the probability of growth models showed some differences among the 20 growth models. Further, to assess the growth/no growth and AFB1/no- AFB1 production boundaries, 0.05 and 0.5 probabilities were plotted at 30 days for all of the isolates. The boundaries for growth and AFB1 showed that, in general, the conditions for growth were wider than those for AFB1 production. The probability of growth and AFB1 production seemed to be less variable among isolates than AFB1 accumulation. Apart from the AFB1 production probability models, using growth probability models for AFB1 probability predictions could be, although conservative, a suitable alternative. Predictive mycology should include a number of isolates to generate data to build predictive models and take into account the genetic diversity of the species and thus make predictions as similar as possible to real fungal food contamination.

Famine food of vegetal origin consumed in the Netherlands during World War II

BackgroundPeriods of extreme food shortages during war force people to eat food that they normally do not consider edible. The last time that countries in Western Europe experienced severe scarcities was during World War II. The so-called Dutch famine or Hunger Winter (1944–1945) made at least 25,000 victims. The Dutch government took action by opening soup kitchens and providing information on wild plants and other famine food sources in “wartime cookbooks.” The Dutch wartime diet has never been examined from an ethnobotanical perspective.MethodsWe interviewed 78 elderly Dutch citizens to verify what they remembered of the consumption of vegetal and fungal famine food during World War II by them and their close surroundings. We asked whether they experienced any adverse effects from consuming famine food plants and how they knew they were edible. We identified plant species mentioned during interviews by their local Dutch names and illustrated field guides and floras. We hypothesized that people living in rural areas consumed more wild species than urban people. A Welch t test was performed to verify whether the number of wild and cultivated species differed between urban and rural citizens.ResultsA total number of 38 emergency food species (14 cultivated and 21 wild plants, three wild fungi) were mentioned during interviews. Sugar beets, tulip bulbs, and potato peels were most frequently consumed. Regularly eaten wild species were common nettle, blackberry, and beechnuts. Almost one third of our interviewees explicitly described to have experienced extreme hunger during the war. People from rural areas listed significantly more wild species than urban people. The number of cultivated species consumed by both groups was similar. Negative effects were limited to sore throats and stomachache from the consumption of sugar beets and tulip bulbs. Knowledge on the edibility of famine food was obtained largely by oral transmission; few people remembered the written recipes in wartime cookbooks.ConclusionThis research shows that 71 years after the Second World War, knowledge on famine food species, once crucial for people’s survival, is still present in the Dutch society. The information on famine food sources supplied by several institutions was not distributed widely. For the necessary revival of famine food knowledge during the 1940s, people needed to consult a small group of elders. Presumed toxicity was a major reason given by our participants to explain why they did not collect wild plants or mushrooms during the war.

The fungal spore and food spoilage

This review aims to explore the connection between food spoilage by fungi to spore biology and modeling studies. It introduces the fungal spore as a vehicle of survival and distribution and discusses its variety and stress resistance. These spores are not static particles, they show maturation and change in time. How long spores survive in the food production environment is not known and might be dependent on the presence of water. At the limits of growth, spore germination, which is also highly responsive on environmental cues, becomes unpredictable and shelf life becomes variable. It becomes clear that the story of fungal spores and food is one of variability. Every fungus has its own story and only the strongest spore counts. Or the fastest?

Chemico-physical and antifungal properties of poly(butylene succinate)/cavoxin blend: Study of a novel bioactive polymeric based system

This manuscript describes antifungal, structural, thermal and morphological properties of a novel, eco-friendly bioplastic film, based on poly(butylenesuccinate) and cavoxin, a chalcone phytopathogenic metabolite, isolated from cultures by the fungus Phoma cava and included inside the biodegradable polymeric matrix. The antagonistic activity of the film explored against two fungal food contaminants Penicilliumroqueforti and Aspergillusniger, highlighted that cavoxin was fungicide at MIC concentrations. The chemico-physical analysis were performed on films before and after antifungal activity. Thermal analysis evidenced both the higher thermal stability of poly(butylenesuccinate) and cavoxin blend and the sharp nucleating action of cavoxin on the polymer. Infrared spectroscopy highlighted the presence of physical interaction between the polar groups of the blend components, whereas gel permeation chromatography highlighted that the hydrolytic effect of cavoxin on poly(butylenesuccinate) was responsible for the diffusion and releasing of the biomolecule from the matrix and UV–Vis spectroscopy provided quantitative information of release kinetics. Finally, morphological analysis confirmed both the polymeric surface hydrolysis exerted by cavoxin, and the adhesion of fungal spores on films after contact occurred during the antifungal assay.

Isolation of Serratia marcescens involved in chitin degradation in the bulb mite Rhizoglyphus robini

There is an increasing awareness of the importance of the microbiome of arthropods to understand their host’s biology. In the bulb mite, Rhizoglyphus robini, associated bacteria have been found to be involved in its chitinolytic abilities. The bulb mite, a plant pest feeding on below-ground parts of mostly Liliaceae crops, prefers fungus-infested plants. Moreover its fitness is higher when feeding on a fungal food source than when feeding on non-infected plants. In this study we isolated a chitinolytic bacterium from mite homogenate and identified it molecularly as Serratia marcescens (Bizio 1823), which is a model organism for chitin degradation. Precise identification of the bacterium can be important for the development of biological control programs of the mite as well as for further studies investigating Serratia marcescens and its chitinolytic machinery.

Chemical Composition and Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils from Flowers, Leaves, Rhizomes, and Bulbs of the Wild Iraqi Kurdish Plant Iris Persica

Essential oils-obtained by hydrodistillation of different parts of Iris persica L. were investigated for the first time by GC-FID and GC-MS; moreover, their antifungal activities were determined: 34,. 32, 27, and 17 compounds were identified in the oils from air-dried flowers, leaves, rhizomes and fresh. bulbs, respectively, representing ≥ 98% each oil. The major constituents of the flower essential oil were phenylethanol (24.8%) and furfural (13.8%), which, as the main component, constituted also 39.0% and 22.2% of the leaf and rhizome volatile fractions, respectively. Phenylacetaldehyde (37.1%) was the main constituent of the bulb volatile fraction. In in vitro tests, moderate antifungal activity was detected for the oils against strains of the human pathogenic fungal species Gandida albicans, Microsporum canis, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes, the plant-fungal pathogen Pyricularia oryzae, and the fungal food contaminant Aspergillus carbonarius,. The highest activity was exhibited by the essential oils from leaves and flowers, suggesting that they could be considered natural antimicrobial agents.

Mycochemical Characterization of Agaricus subrufescens considering Their Morphological and Physiological Stage of Maturity on the Traceability Process.

Agaricus subrufescens Peck is a basidiomycete with immunomodulatory compounds and antitumor activities. This research evaluated the mycochemical composition of A. subrufescens, considering their morphological and physiological stage of maturity, with a particular focus on the development of a traceability process for the formulation of new nutritional products based on fungal foods. The stipes contained a high amount of dry matter (10.33%), total carbohydrate (69.56%), available carbohydrate (63.89%), and energy value (363.97 kcal 100 g−1 DM). The pilei contained a high amount of moisture (90.66%), nitrogen (7.75%), protein (33.96%), ash (8.24), crude fat (2.44%), acid detergent fiber (16.75 g kg−1), neutral detergent fiber (41.82 g kg−1), hemicellulose (25.07 g kg−1), and lignin (9.77 g kg−1). Stipes with mature physiological stage had higher values of dry matter (10.50%), crude fiber (5.94%), total carbohydrate (72.82%), AC (66.88%), and energy value (364.91 kcal 100 g−1 DM). Pilei of the mushrooms in the immature physiological stage had higher values of P (36.83%), N (8.41%), and A (8.44%). Due to the differences between the mycochemical compositions of the morphological parts of mushrooms linked to their physiological stage of maturity, such characteristics have immense potential to be considered for a traceability process. This study can be used for the purpose of providing the consumer with more product diversity, optimizing bioactivities of composts, and allowing farmers an efficient and profitable use of the mushroom biomass.

Genome Analysis of Two Pseudonocardia Phylotypes Associated with Acromyrmex Leafcutter Ants Reveals Their Biosynthetic Potential.

The attine ants of South and Central America are ancient farmers, having evolved a symbiosis with a fungal food crop >50 million years ago. The most evolutionarily derived attines are the Atta and Acromyrmex leafcutter ants, which harvest fresh leaves to feed their fungus. Acromyrmex and many other attines vertically transmit a mutualistic strain of Pseudonocardia and use antifungal compounds made by these bacteria to protect their fungal partner against co-evolved fungal pathogens of the genus Escovopsis. Pseudonocardia mutualists associated with the attines Apterostigma dentigerum and Trachymyrmex cornetzi make novel cyclic depsipeptide compounds called gerumycins, while a mutualist strain isolated from derived Acromyrmex octospinosus makes an unusual polyene antifungal called nystatin P1. The novelty of these antimicrobials suggests there is merit in exploring secondary metabolites of Pseudonocardia on a genome-wide scale. Here, we report a genomic analysis of the Pseudonocardia phylotypes Ps1 and Ps2 that are consistently associated with Acromyrmex ants collected in Gamboa, Panama. These were previously distinguished solely on the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequencing but genome sequencing of five Ps1 and five Ps2 strains revealed that the phylotypes are distinct species and each encodes between 11 and 15 secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). There are signature BGCs for Ps1 and Ps2 strains and some that are conserved in both. Ps1 strains all contain BGCs encoding nystatin P1-like antifungals, while the Ps2 strains encode novel nystatin-like molecules. Strains show variations in the arrangement of these BGCs that resemble those seen in gerumycin gene clusters. Genome analyses and invasion assays support our hypothesis that vertically transmitted Ps1 and Ps2 strains have antibacterial activity that could help shape the cuticular microbiome. Thus, our work defines the Pseudonocardia species associated with Acromyrmex ants and supports the hypothesis that Pseudonocardia species could provide a valuable source of new antimicrobials.

Density constrains cascading consequences of warming and nitrogen from invertebrate growth to litter decomposition.

Smaller invertebrate body mass is claimed to be a universal response to climate warming. It has been suggested that body mass could also predict consumer influences on ecosystem processes in a warmer world because generalized rules describe relationships between body mass, temperature, and metabolism. However, the utility of this suggestion remains tenuous because the nutritional and physiological constraints underlying relationships between body mass and consumer-driven processes are highly variable in realistic settings. Here we test, using a generalist invertebrate detritivore, fungi, and leaf litter, the limitations imposed by nutrition on growth and decomposition in response to global change. Strong competition for fungal food resources limited invertebrate growth and reduced body mass plasticity in response to warming and nitrogen pollution scenarios. When competition was relaxed by experimentally reducing invertebrate density, consumption of fungi promoted rapid invertebrate growth and enhanced invertebrate sensitivity to the global change scenarios, especially warming and nitrogen pollution together. Accordingly, fungi promoted invertebrate body mass plasticity and mediated consumer effects on decomposition causing the relative influence of warming and nitrogen pollution to vary across trophic levels. An important implication is that managing nitrogen pollution may alter which trophic level is most sensitive to warming.

Identification of novel surfactin derivatives from NRPS modification of Bacillus subtilis and its antifungal activity against Fusarium moniliforme.

BackgroundBacillus subtilis strain PB2-L1 produces the lipopeptide surfactin, a highly potent biosurfactant synthesized by a large multimodular nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS). In the present study, the modules SrfA-A-Leu, SrfA-B-Asp, and SrfA-B-Leu from surfactin NRPS in B. subtilis BP2-L1 were successfully knocked-out using a temperature-sensitive plasmid, pKS2-mediated-based, homologous, recombination method.ResultsThree novel surfactin products were produced, individually lacking amino acid Leu-3, Asp-5, or Leu-6. These surfactins were detected, isolated, and characterized by HPLC and LC-FTICR-MS/MS. In comparison with native surfactin, [∆Leu3]surfactin and [∆Leu6]surfactin showed evidence of reduced toxicity, while [∆Asp5]surfactin showed stronger inhibition than native surfactin against B. pumilus and Micrococcus luteus. These results showed that the minimum inhibitory concentration of [∆Leu6]surfactin for Fusarium moniliforme was 50 μg/mL, such that [∆Leu6]surfactin could lead to mycelium projection, cell damage, and leakage of nucleic acids and protein. These factors all contributed to stimulating apoptosis in F. moniliforme.ConclusionsThe present results revealed that [∆Leu6]surfactin showed a significant antifungal activity against F. moniliforme and might successfully be employed to control fungal food contamination and improve food safety.

The fecal virome of South and Central American children with diarrhea includes small circular DNA viral genomes of unknown origin.

Viral metagenomics of feces collected from 58 Peruvian children with unexplained diarrhea revealed several small circular ssDNA genomes. Two genomes related to sequences previously reported in feces from chimpanzees and other mammals and recently named smacoviruses were characterized and then detected by PCR in 1.7 % (1/58) and 19 % (11/58) of diarrheal samples, respectively. Another three genomes from a distinct small circular ssDNA viral group provisionally called pecoviruses encoded Cap and Rep proteins with <35 % identity to those in related genomes reported in human, seal, porcine and dromedary feces. Pecovirus DNA was detected in 15.5 % (9/58), 5.9 % (3/51) and 3 % (3/100) of fecal samples from unexplained diarrhea in Peru, Nicaragua and Chile, respectively. Feces containing these ssDNA genomes also contained known human enteric viral pathogens. The cellular origins of these circular ssDNA viruses, whether human cells, ingested plants, animals or fungal foods, or residents of the gut microbiome, are currently unknown.

Kaulath, a new fungal fermented food from horse gram.

Horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) is used in the traditional method for treatmentof several health complications. It is also known that fermentation of such substrates yields a number of compounds that enhance the overall activities against several disease states. Solid state fermentation of horse gram using Penicillium camemberti showed an inhibition of pancreatic lipase and alpha glucosidase activities. The fermented material, termed Kaulath, showed 60% increase in fat content. A reduction in sodium and increased levels of potassium and calcium was observed in Kaulath. In addition, a higher free radical scavenging activity was noted in this product compared to unfermented horse gram. Anti-nutritional factors, such as phytic acid and trypsin inhibitors showed a reduction in Kaulath. Furthermore, Kaulath, upto 1g per kg body weight, did not exhibit any mortality or toxic effects in experimental rats after 14days of administration. The hematological and clinical parameters were within safe limits between the groups, supported by the histopathology of liver and kidney. These results indicate potential food use of Kaulath in diets and as functional ingredients in formulated foods.

Nilamadana, new fungal fermented cereal based food

The high therapeutic value of kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) due to an abundance of phytochemicals, particularly phenolic compounds having strong antioxidant properties, make this underutilized cereal an excellent substitute to rice or wheat. Solid state fermentation of kodo millet using Penicillium roqueforti showed an inhibition of 17% against pancreatic lipase and 55% towards the advanced glycation end products (AGEs) formation. The fermented product, Nilamadana, showed a 50% increase in fat content. Both soluble and reducing sugars were present in higher amounts in fermented product than in the control. In addition, a reduction in sodium level with increased levels of potassium and calcium was noted in the fermented product. HPLC analysis of the phenolic acids and flavonoids revealed that predominant phenolics in kodo millet were sinapic acid, caffeic acid and naringenin. Fermentation increased total flavonoid and chlorogenic acid contents. Nilamadana, up to 1 g per kg body weight, did not exhibit toxic effect or mortality in experimental rats till 14 days after administration. Nilamadana fed rats showed a 13% reduction in cholesterol levels than that of the control. Furthermore, histopathological examination of liver and kidney indicated that haematological and clinical parameters were within safe limits between the groups fed Nilamadana and the control diet. These results explain the bioactivities and functionalities of kodo millet-based fungal fermented functional food, Nilamadana and its potential use in the prevention of life style diseases.

Effect of Different Formulations of Polyphenolic Compounds Obtained from OMWW on the Growth of Several Fungal Plant and Food Borne Pathogens. Studies in vitro and in vivo

Abstract The assessment of different concentrations and forms of polyphenols (free and encapsulated) from olive mill waste (OMWW) as plant protection materials against economically important plant pathogenic fungi in in vitro and in vivo tests is the main research area of this work. In the first stage of the experimental process, it was assessed the zone of inhibition in mm of several fungal pathogens using the methods of disk diffusion assay, and well diffusion assay. In the second stage of the evaluation, the effect of polyphenols against 14 fungal microorganisms was examined in order to determine the MIC / microbicidal concentration (MIC / MFC). In a later stage in vivo evaluation of liquid polyphenols (LFP) obtained from OMWW as natural bio-chemicals against several fungal pathogens on tomato plants was carried. The evaluation of the results obtained by determining the MIC and MLC, demonstrated that the fungus Aspergillus flavus appeared highly resistant to the LFP concentration required minimum sample rate > 35-40% for inhibition and killing effects respectively. In order of major protection resulting from the use of polyphenolic compound against major diseases, Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Ascochyta lentis gave the most promising results. Moreover, the use of low concentration of LFP at 5 and 10% could control in some cases fungal pathogens. However, higher concentration of LFP (20 and 30%) appeared possible phytotoxic effects.

Antifungal Activity against &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Aspergillus parasiticus&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; of Supernatants from Whey Permeates Fermented with Kefir Grains

Aspergillus parasiticus, a common fungal contaminant in food, produces aflatoxin B1, which is classified as human carcinogen. Kefir is an ancient fermented beverage obtained by the fermentation of different substrates with kefir grains. A very important waste produced by the dairy cheese industry is the whey permeate, which nowadays is a strong ambient contaminant. The aim of this work was to assess the effect of whey permeates fermented with kefir grains against A. parasiticus growth, aflatoxin B1 biosynthesis, and the kefir microorganisms protection against the cell damage produced by aflatoxin B1. It was observed that kefir-cell-free-supernatants (CFS) produced fungal inhibition. A fungicidal effect was observed with 65% v/v of CFS in the culture medium (final pH 4.55 and total undissociated lactic and acetic acid concentration 34.08 mM). Under these conditions, aflatoxin production was not detected. Finally, it was found that non-viable kefir microorganisms protected HepG2 cells from the damage produced by aflatoxin B1.

Mechanisms of nutrient acquisition and utilization during fungal infections of leaves.

Foliar fungal pathogens challenge global food security, but how they optimize growth and development during infection is understudied. Despite adopting several lifestyles to facilitate nutrient acquisition from colonized cells, little is known about the genetic underpinnings governing pathogen adaption to host-derived nutrients. Homologs of common global and pathway-specific gene regulatory elements are likely to be involved, but their contribution to pathogenicity, and how they are connected to broader genetic networks, is largely unspecified. Here, we focus on carbon and nitrogen metabolism in foliar pathogens and consider what is known, and what is not known, about fungal exploitation of host nutrient and ask how common metabolic regulators have been co-opted to the plant-pathogenic lifestyle as well as how nutrients are utilized to drive infection.