Funeral Ceremonies Research Articles

Soviet artist as a participant in the state funeral ritual of the 1920–1950s

Throughout the 1920–1950s Selected Soviet artists were regular participants in state funeral ceremonies. In this article, for the first time, the process of including artists in a funeral ritual and investing them with a specific role in the performance of thanatological practices on a national scale is investigated. The stereotypes of behavior of those who were "honored" to be invited to the tomb of the leader, their emotional reactions, the nature of the work performed during the funeral ritual, are considered as components of the formation of a special semiotic space.

ARSITEKTUR RELIGI PESTA TIWAH DAYAK NGAJU SEBAGAI DAYA TARIK WISATA BUDAYA DI KALIMANTAN TENGAH


 
 
 Title: The Religious Architecture of Tiwah Feast among Dayak Ngaju as Cultural Tourism Attractions in Central Kalimantan
 The belief to a transcendent space among Dayak Ngaju people, especially for Kaharingan believers in Central Kalimantan, leads to the Tiwah Feast, a secondary funeral ceremony to transmit the soul of the dead to a celestial realm called The Lewu Tatau. The Tiwah Feast manifests in many meaningfulness of sacred symbols. There are certain rules in the implementation, particularly on the physical symbols and its religious architectures. This article emphasize the uniqueness of the symbols on the religious architecture of Tiwah Feast, which has the potential to become tourist attraction in the development of cultural tourism products. Using qualitative methods, data obtained through in-depth interviews, participant observation, and documentation, in two different locations, in Tumbang Koling and Ramang Village. Sacred symbols on its religious architecture include Sapundu and Sandong. A sapundu manifests in the form of a human or animal figure, regarding to the personification of the ancestral spirit. It shows the way for the soul towards Lewu Tatau. Meanwhile, Sandong is a secondary burial coffin to put the ancestral bones. The construction and architecture should concern on foundation, size, height, carvings, and ornaments. This local wisdom is potential to be developed as a cultural tourism attraction. However, the sacredness of the Tiwah Feast must be maintained and preserved from cultural commercialization and commodification issues.
 
 

Cremation and Grief: Are Ways of Commemorating the Dead Related to Adjustment Over Time?

Funeral services are known to serve multiple functions for bereaved persons. There is also a common, intuitively reasonable assumption of positive associations between engaging in funeral activities and adjustment to bereavement. We examined whether restricting ceremonial cremation arrangements to a minimum has a negative association with grief over time. Bereaved persons in the United Kingdom completed questionnaires 2 to 5 months postloss and again a year later (N = 233 with complete data; dropout = 11.4%). Neither type nor elaborateness of the cremation service, nor satisfaction with arrangements (typically high), emerged as significantly related to grief; no major subgroup differences (e.g., according to income level) were found. Results suggested that it does not matter to grief whether a more minimalistic or elaborate funeral ceremony was observed. We concluded that the funeral industry represented in this investigation is offering bereaved people the range of choices regarding cremation arrangements to meet their needs. Limits to generalizability are discussed.

PERJALANAN JIWA KE “KAMPUNG LELUHUR” KONSEP KEMATIAN MENURUT KEPERCAYAAN ASLI MASYARAKAT SUMBA (MARAPU) DAN PERJUMPAANNYA DENGAN AJARAN KATOLIK

This study answers a phenomenon of double funeralrite that often occurs among the Catholics who converted from Marapu, the ethnic religion of the people of Sumba. Double funeralrite is the practice of funeral ceremonies consisting of official liturgy of the Catholic Church and spontaneously followed by a number of Marapu rites. Such a practice indicates a dualism of belief, in the sense that people have embraced the Catholic faith but are still attached to the elements of their old beliefs. In this study the author investigates in depth both the funeral rites according to Marapu and the double practice phenomenon in funeral ceremonies of Catholics who converted from Marapu. The main purpose of this research is to find parallels and intersections between Catholic’s concept of life after death and that of Marapu’s. Discussion and analysis of the data prioritizes the meaning behind each verbal and non-verbal expression. The meaning of prayers, rituals and symbols used in funeral according to Marapu reveals universal values ​​that parallel to the values ​​contained in Catholic teaching. According to Marapu belief, death is the return of the soul towards “ancestral village”, which is the final resting place of souls after death. This return is believed to be a long journey before arriving at the ancestral village. Prayers and ceremonies carried out by humans aim to help the soul to enter the ancestral village. This concept parallels to the Catholic understanding of soul purification after death before entering the eternal happiness in Heaven. Such parallels allow a construction of the encounter between Catholic teachings and Marapu ones about life after death.

모 상실 전후 미술치료사의 점토를 사용한 애도반응 작품 연구

This study expands part of dissertation study about complicated grief (Kim, 2016) and was examining the anticipatory grief reflections of an art therapist. The purpose of this study is to explore of clay-based artistic reflections and identify the therapeutic metaphors through grieving experiences of an art therapist who lost her mother. For the purpose, this author researched the therapeutic effects of creative arts and clay, and introduced the author’s six clay reflections for her anticipatory grief responses (Step 1) and four for acute grief responses (Step 2: mother’ funeral, 49day funeral ceremony, 1st Mother’s day, and 6month family gathering) after the death of her mother. Then, the author reviewed the metaphors to find therapeutic factors.<BR> Based on qualitative, art-based research and participatory process, the ten artworks and written reflections of this author were collected. This study was conducted after obtaining ethical approval (IRB) and reviewed with one supervisor for reliability.<BR> The findings from the research identified grieving experience of this author. First, through clay-based art experiments the author explored and confront her feelings and thoughts related to the death and found the therapeutic value of clay. Second, this author found her own meanings as symbolic metaphors- tree, seed, clay, teardrop, and blessing and belonging.<BR> The conclusion according to the result showed that creating artistic reflections using clay was a meaningful way to process and understand the grief process. It is hoped that the outcomes of the research can contribute to the field of expressive therapies by introducing clay-based experimental process and offering in-depth understanding of the specific experience of grieving art therapist.

Religious Appropriation of Ancient Rus Chamber Graves

The article is devoted to the discussion of the religious identity of Viking age chamber burials in the territory of Ancient Rus. Particular attention is paid to the finds in such complexes of cruciform pendants and linings; their sacred meaning is concluded. The wide context of such finds was taken into account: their place among the burial equipment, the combination of crosses with other groups of amulets, the composition of the rest of the equipment, the position of the bodies, age and sex composition of the dead, and other ritual features. Christian symbols are often found in combination with artifacts of Byzantine origin. If the cross was a part of the necklace, it was given a central place. Some items were made specifically for the funeral ceremony. Wax candles and Byzantine coin pendants could also play the role of Christian symbols in chamber burials. Amulets, commonly considered pagan, are quite rarely found in chambers. In turn, cruciform pendants and linings are almost never found in cremation graves. Cultural impulses associated with the penetration into Ancient Rus of certain elements of the Christian funeral rite, came from both Byzantium and the countries of Central and Northern Europe. One of such elements was the appearance in chamber burials of an additional structural part — a wooden coffin. Differences in the religious beliefs of the dead can be explained by the presence of biritual pair burials. Initially, the chamber rite was pagan in its essence. However, it was gradually used by neophytes among the ancient Rus elite, because the rite met the main requirement of Christian missionaries — denial of burning the dead. Some of the ceremonial features of “chambers with crosses”, such as sitting postures of the deceased or the presence of accompanying burial places for slaves and horses, can be regarded as manifestations of ethnosocial rather than religious awareness. Some of these burials were made after the christening of 988, which testifies to the strong rooting of traditional burial customs. Further study of chamber burials will provide new valuable information on the early stages of the Christianization of Ancient Rus.

Bad deaths, good funerals: The values of life insurance in New Orleans

This article explores the relationship between the value of money and the value of human life as it plays out in the financing of funeral ceremonies. It examines how these values are articulated through life insurance policies concerning violent deaths of working‐class black Americans in New Orleans. The article draws on ten months of ethnographic fieldwork (2017–18) in New Orleans, which included participant observation at a black‐owned funeral home and interviews with funeral directors, policyholders, and beneficiaries. By examining the role of life insurance policies in arranging good funerals after bad deaths, the ethnographic analysis demonstrates how life insurance policies are consumed and can produce value at a moment of loss. It explores the paradox that an insurance policy can at once become a resource for the affirmation of human value and a financial risk in itself.

Związki ks. Józefa Pastuszki z Akademią Duchowną w Petersburgu i Katolickim Uniwersytetem Lubelskim

Przyszły Profesor Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, ks. Józef Adam Pastuszka, w 1912 r. rozpoczął studia w Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Sandomierzu i realizował je do pierwszej wojny światowej, która w następstwie działań wojennych w 1915 r. wraz z rodzicami i rodzeństwem zaprowadziła go na Wschód w okolice Brześcia. Kiedy udało mu się przedostać do Petersburga, podjął przez dwa lata kontynuację studiów w tamtejszym seminarium duchownym. Po czym przez rok 1917/1918 był studentem Akademii Duchownej w Petersburgu, gdzie miała swój początek, niejako „prehistorię” uczelnia lubelska. Rektorem Akademii był wówczas ks. Idzi Radziszewski.W roku 1917/1918 ówczesny rektor Akademii w Petersburgu podjął organizację Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. W swoich wspomnieniach ks. Józef Pastuszka wyraził przekonanie, że zaistniały związki pomiędzy Akademią Duchowną w Petersburgu, która po rewolucji październikowej przestała istnieć, a powołanym do życia w 1918 r. Uniwersytetem Lubelskim. Związki te opierały się na tym, że rezydujący w Petersburgu arcybiskup mohylowski, jako zwierzchnia władza Akademii, przelał prawa i przywileje Akademii na Uniwersytet Lubelski.W lipcu 1918 r. jako subdiakon Józef Adam Pastuszka wrócił do kraju. Mając ukończony pierwszy rok studiów w Petersburgu został przez sandomierską władzę diecezjalną skierowany na studia do Innsbrucka (Austria). Pod koniec października 1920 r. otrzymał dyplom doktorski, a 1930 przeprowadził colloquium habilitacyjne na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim i uzyskał tytuł docenta filozofii i podjął pracę na Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. W 1934 r. został zatrudniony na Wydziale Humanistycznym Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. Z chwilą wybuchu wojny w 1939 r. Uniwersytet Lubelski przerwał działalność. W połowie kwietnia 1945 r. Profesor powrócił do Lublina i objął dawną katedrę psychologii ogólnej w Katolickim Uniwersytecie Lubelskim. We wrześniu 1952 r. został usunięty z Uczelni. W 1956 ks. Józef Pastuszka znów powrócił do pracy na KUL.W lipcu 1969 r. przeszedł na emeryturę, w 1978 r., opuścił Lublin i zamieszkał w domu kapitulnym w Sandomierzu. Zmarł 13 stycznia 1989 r. w Sandomierzu, 17 stycznia w katedrze sandomierskiej odbyły się uroczystości pogrzebowe, 21 stycznia 1989 r. został pochowany w rodzinnej parafii Rzeczniowie.

The “improvement of funeral ceremonies” movement and the creation of “modern” Japanese subjects in Taiwan during Japanese rule

ABSTRACTThis paper is a historical inquiry into the movement for the “improvement of funeral ceremonies” in Taiwan under Japanese Rule as it unfolded from the 1930s. The traditional funerary culture of Taiwan has been researched and analyzed thoroughly by cultural anthropologists, but there were only few insights into how the political and colonial configuration of society changed and in turn influenced the contents of funeral ceremonies and the attitudes of those involved in them. In later colonial Taiwan, where the majority of the Taiwanese population was comprised of Han Chinese who shared cultural ties and values with China, a “modernization” (= Japanization) of funeral ceremonies was achieved by the ruling Japanese authorities according to their own values. In order to prove this in detail and to understand the entire process, it is necessary to look at this topic also from an historian’s standpoint. In this paper, various source material from colonial Taiwan is used to identify and inspect the movement for the “improvement of funeral ceremonies”, see what it aimed at and how new practices were realized. Also, changes in the tendency of cremation rates and the use of public graveyards are scrutinized. Finally, this paper analyzes the conflicts and discontinuities caused in Taiwanese mentality by the denial of the traditional funeral rituals by Japanese authorities, and considers how such changes were perceived in literary works of Taiwanese who published in the Japanese language at that time.

MUERTE COLECTIVA Y COVID-19: APUNTES PARA EL DEBATE.

The effects of the pandemic have plunged Spanish society in a situation of collective death not experienced for decades. In addition to the saturation of medical services, excess mortality also caused a situation of collapse in funeral services. The impossibility of carrying out funeral ceremonies, or the restriction of attendance, has placed an additional emotional burden on families who have had to suspend their mourning. In this article, we will apply Gaëlle Clavandier’s notion of “collective death” to analyse the commemorative actions carried out by public administrations, paying tribute to the victims of the pandemic.

Әлемдік монотеистік діндердегі жерлеу рәсімдері

Әлемдік монотеистік діндердегі жерлеу рәсімдері

The traditions related with the funeral ceremonies

The traditions related with the funeral ceremonies

Haçlıların Düğün ve Cenaze Merasimlerine Müslümanların Bakışı

Birth and death, two important stages of world and hereafter, are shaped around the same emotions in all societies. Death brings sadness and birth brings joy. However, the child must be born from a legitimate marriage in order for the child to be accepted by both religious institutions and society. Therefore, the weddings that ensure the continuation of the generation and the deaths that ensure the person to get closer to Allah and to pass on to the hereafter are crowned with a certain ceremony in both Christianity and Islam. Wedding and funeral ceremonies have a special place in the Crusaders who have been trying to be a resident of the Islamic territories since 1098. As a matter of fact, through these ceremonies, they have tried to continue their tradition and religious practices among Muslims whose lives, culture, language and religion are different from their own ones. The aim of this study is to give information about the weddings and funerals carried out by the Crusaders in the eastern territories and to show Muslims’ point of view on these ceremonies. For this reason, in the research phase of the study, besides the sources of Islamic history, Latin, Syriac and Armenian chronicles were used and the study was enriched with various works.

The deposition of dogs (Canis familiaris) at Satu Nou – Valea lui Voicu (Babadag culture)

The archaeozoological study carried out in Satu Nou – Valea lui Voicu (Oltina, Constanța County) provides new information on the relationship between humans and dogs in the early period of the Iron Age. Thus, numerous bones from several dogs (Canis familiaris) were identified in the feature called “ ditch or gully” and in a pit (Pit 41). The authors of the research attributed this context, stratigraphically considered the oldest, to the Babadag culture (10th– 9th centuries BC). The studied group includes the complete and partial skeletons of 14 individuals (12 identified in the ditch and two in Pit 41), unearthed in the 1991– 1992 seasons. Some dogs (at least four individuals) were slaughtered by blows to the skull and / or were eaten (at least five individuals) as evidenced by the disarticulation and defleshing cut marks identified on the bones. Given the special archaeological situation at Satu Nou, the phenomenon of cynophagy must be viewed in a ritual and funerary context. Of the 14 dogs, two are certainly males, two are possibly males and four are possibly females. The animals were predominantly slaughtered at a young age : nine are subadults (between 8 and 18 months) and five are adults. The average withers height of these animals is 50.2 cm (n = 5 ; limits 46– 55.6 cm) after Koudelka and 51 cm (n = 5 ; limits 47.4– 56.8 cm) after Harcourt ; the gracility index average is 7.4 (n = 5 ; limits 6.6– 8.3). These figures describe medium-sized and above-average dogs of medium robustness. It is very interesting that nine of these individuals have extremely varied pathologies affecting various anatomical parts, from the skull to the phalanges. Most of these pathologies healed in the individuals’ lifetime, but they illustrate that these animals have gone through various accidents or traumas, some of them at relatively young ages. In general, the dog had a wide range of attributes : psychopomp creature, companion of the warrior and hunter, and also guardian of the home, with a therapeutic and purifying role. In our case the dog was sacrificed (sometimes violently), deposed as an offering and sometimes probably ritually consumed. It should not be omitted that in the same ditch from Valea lui Voicu were identified human bones (from 26 individuals), pottery, but also numerous animals remains that could have been part of the funerary banquets that probably took place in this area. The association of all these archaeological, anthropological and archaeozoological materials may suggest the existence of dog sacrifices at the funerals of the deceased (as their companions) and the deposition of a part of the animal near the body, while the rest of the animal was consumed during the funerary ceremony.

Forbidden Songs of the Pgaz K'Nyau by Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan

Reviewed by: Forbidden Songs of the Pgaz K'Nyau by Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan Gavin Douglas (bio) Forbidden Songs of the Pgaz K'Nyau. Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan ("Chi"). Translated by Benjamin Fairfield in consultation with Dr. Yuphaphann Hoonchamlon. Bloomington, IN: Society for Ethnomusicology, 2018. Ethnomusicology Translations, no. 8. [52 pp.], notes, bibliography. Originally published in Thai as เพลงต้องห้ามของปกาเกอะญอ. Bangkok: Santisiri Press, 2014. https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/emt. Free download. "We are headed for disaster if the Pgaz K'Nyau people do not know tha plue or other songs for the deceased." Community elder Phati Johnni Odochao shares these fears in Chi Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan's insightful book Forbidden Songs of the Pgaz K'Nyau. The loss of tha funeral songs, he continues, may well lead to a loss of a sense of ourselves, our origins, or the true meaning of life. As he puts it, "We would have a life on earth that just floats by, not truly rooted in our own humanity" (48). Forbidden Songs of the Pgaz K'Nyau is a valuable addition to the Ethnomusicology Translations initiative of the Society for Ethnomusicology. In this book, musician and social activist Chi Suwichan Phattanaphraiwan contemplates the loss and (partial) revival of a song genre that is an important window into the indigenous cosmology, ecology, cultural knowledge, and identity of a Karen group in Northwest Thailand who call themselves Pgaz K'Nyau. Although there is a large volume of literature on the Karen—a stateless indigenous population straddling the Thai-Myanmar border tied together by a shared experience of lowland oppressive kingdoms and by shared cultural practices, folkloric history, religious practices, and written scripts—almost none of it is written by the Karen themselves. The Karen are diverse, with six million in Myanmar and one million in Thailand, and their coherence is challenged by different religious affiliations, political struggles with the lowland powers, and uneven engagements with modernity. Through Chi Suwichan's autoethnographic exploration of traditional song, we gain valuable insights into the changing lifeways and the struggle of the Pgaz K'Nyau to retain a sense of identity. Clearly translated by Benjamin Fairfield, this open-access publication contains sixteen short chapters that capture the historical context and the purpose of traditional funeral songs, or tha. Many of the chapters are narrative [End Page 139] stories that were first published in Thai on Chi's website in 2014 for a Thai readership. The "forbidden" subset of the tha oral tradition is a provocative theme that threads through the book. What songs are forbidden, by whom, and in what context is variable, as meanings change across religious systems, through memory loss, and with the adoption of modern lifestyles. The book begins with a history of traditional animist belief and music practice, traces the demise of traditional songs as villages convert to Baptist Christianity, and elaborates on the impact of lowland-driven modernization and of the marketdriven reconceptualization of the sacred forests in which the Pgaz K'Nyau live. A wide variety of tha are sung at funerals and guide the organization of the multiday ceremony. Seven-syllable, two-stanza couplets sung antiphonally with a leader (mo cho) comment on numerous aspects of Pgaz K'Nyau culture throughout the ceremony—from the specific merits of the deceased to general commentary on coexistence with the environment. The variety of tha types include an aid in guiding the dead to the afterlife (tha choekeplue) so that they do not lose their way; songs for the living to encourage separation (tha chawlaw) so that the living do not follow the dead; community affirmation songs (tha dawthaw) that highlight cooperation, songs giving participants an awareness that they are all of one community; youth courting songs (tha naw doe jaw); and many others. The performance of some tha, such as those guiding the deceased to the afterlife, are taboo and restricted by the community to the funeral ceremony. Performance of these songs for nonfuneral contexts may have adverse effects on the living. Even within the funeral context, vulnerable ears (for example, young children and pregnant women) are forbidden from participating to avoid living souls straying toward the afterlife. A very different type of prohibition came with the advent of...

Spatial Distribution Patterns and Ethnobotanical Knowledge of Farmland Demarcation Tree Species: A Case Study in the Niyodo River Area, Japan

Isolated trees in farmlands serve various ecological functions, but their distribution patterns and planting history are often unknown. Here, we examined the spatial distribution, uses, and folk nomenclature of farmland demarcation trees planted in the Niyodo River area in Japan. Hierarchical clustering using the data from 33 locations distinguished four tree composition groups characterized by the combination of Euonymus japonicus, Ligustrum obtusifolium, Deutzia crenata, and Celtis sinensis. Near the upper to middle reaches of the river, the group characterized by E. japonicus dominated. Near the middle to lower reaches, the group characterized by L. obtusifolium occurred relatively frequently. The other two groups were found sporadically near the upper to lower reaches. The locally unique plant name nezu, used for L. obtusifolium, seems to have originated from a word meaning “the tree does not sleep and keeps the watch” in Japanese. In the study area, D. crenata was one of the plant species utilized for the sticks (magozue) used in traditional funeral ceremonies, which might help to explain why local people maintain D. crenata around homesteads as a demarcation tree. These findings highlight both the commonalities and uniqueness of demarcation tree culture in different regions of Japan and contribute to deepening our understanding of agricultural heritage.

Zwierzęce cmentarze jako miejsca performansu kulturowego

Using the tools and definitions provided by performance studies (Richard Schechner, Jon McKenzie, Erika Fischer-Lichte, Małgorzata Sugiera, Dariusz Kosiński and others) as well as by newer post-human turn (Ewa Domańska) the author analyses the phenomenon of burying domestic animals on sites located on the outskirts of populated areas (resembling the old cholera graveyards). Animal burial sites are denied the term ‘cemetery’ by official legislation which reserves the notion only for human necropolises. Almost every suggestion of establishing an animal cemetery in Poland is met with highly emotional reactions and protests. Itself being acts of social performance, the protests evoke burial as a social performance art, where the community participates in an event based on a standard Christian funeral ceremony. The unstandardized character of the animal’s funeral challenges this view. In the act of animal burial an oppressive gaze of a society is juxtaposed with an intimate one. The confrontation becomes a chance for the society for a self-reflection and transformation. Hence one may prove that the animal burials have a significant performative power and can have social and cultural impact.

Politico-economic Implications of the Confucius Funeral Rites and Ceremonies in the 18-19th Centuries

『朱子家禮』에 의거한 유교적 상장례는 매우 위계적인 동시에 차별적이었다. 男尊女卑·尊高卑低라는 원칙이 작동하기 때문이다. 이 원칙에 따라 父親喪이 가장 무겁고, 母親喪이 그 다음이며, 婦人喪이 가장 가벼웠다. 『가례』를 준수했던 18~19세기 경상도 사족 가문에서 부인의 지위는 매우 낮았다. 부인상을 당할 경우, 남편은 4일 동안만 애도했고, 장례식을 끝으로 居喪 기간이 종료되었다. 여기에서 유교적 상장례는 한국 전통사회의 친족제도인 率壻婚[혹은 壻留婦家婚]과 강하게 충돌한다. 잘 알려져 있는 바와 같이, 한국의 전통적 친족구조는 17세기 이후 동요하기 시작했다. 그 기저에 『가례』가 있었다. 『가례』는 남성과 여성을 위계적으로, 그리고 차별적으로 배치시키는 것을 강제하는 이론서이기 때문이다. 그런 이유로 『가례』가 엄격하게 준행되면 될수록 부계(혹은 남성)의 위상이 높아졌고, 모계(혹은 여성)의 그것은 추락했다. 『가례』 준행 의지의 확산, 남성과 여성 지위의 역전과 간극의 심화, 인구 증가에 따른 공간 배치 압력의 증가 등이 복합적으로 작용하는 가운데, 한국사회는 18세기 전·중반 이래 男系親 중심의 宗族社會로 급속하게 전환하기에 이르렀다.Funeral rites of the Cho&#335;on dynasty, based on Chu Hsi’s Book of Family Ritual, were hierarchical and discriminatory in accordance with the principle of predominance of men over woman and more respect for ancestors than descendants. Under the principle, the father’s funeral was of the greatest importance, followed by the mother’s, and the least importance was given to that of one’s wife. The status of wife in the families of Confucian literati remained marginal. In the case of the wife’s funeral, the husband mourned only for four days, with the mourning period lasting only until the end of the funeral service. Thus, the Confucian funeral ritual ran directly counter to the traditional kinship system based on matrilocal residence. As is widely known, the traditional kinship system of Korea started to be dismantled in the 17th century. This collapse was ascribed to the Family Ritual of Chu Hsi, which arranges men and women in a hierarchical and discriminatory order. Accordingly, as the Ritual was more strictly observed, men (as well as patrilineal lineage) came to have higher status than women (matrilineal lineage). Amid the stronger will to observe the Ritual, men’s dominance over women and their widening gap in status, and the growing demand for more living space under population pressure, Korean society witnessed a rapid transition to a patrilineal lineage-dominant kinship system in the early and mid-18th century.

POLE-TOPS OF CHMYREVA MOHYLA BARROW

In 1977 on the site of famous burial mound Chmyrеva Mohyla located on the northern outskirts of Velyka Bilozerka village of Zaporizhzhia region three bronze pole-tops with images of gryphons were found by local people on the plowed field. There is no evidence whether other artifacts have been found. Luckily nearby in Gunovka village the expedition of Institute of Archaeology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine was working under the leadership of Yu. V. Boltryk who got the founded artifacts and then sent them to Zaporizhzhia regional museum of local lore, history and economy. The history of excavations of Chmyrеva Mohyla numbers more than a century. They were started by F. A. Braun in 1898, M. I. Veselovskiy (1909—1910) continued the excavations and Yu. V. Boltryk in 1994 completed them. The burial mound has not been excavated in full because of various reasons. The destiny of finds from this barrow was tragic. A lot of artifacts among them silver vessels from the hiding-place which was revealed by M. I. Veselovskiy were lost during the World War II when the collections of Kharkiv historic museum were evacuated.&#x0D; Scythian bronze pole-tops as one of the most interesting categories of artifacts for a long time attracted attention of scholar world. They were classified by types and date, their significance in funeral ceremony and everyday life was searched for. The questions still remain. In this article we tried to put into scholar circulation a scanty type of pole-tops with the image of pacing gryphon on the pear-shaped little bell which is characteristic only for Steppe Dnieper river region. For today only eight of them are known and most of them are originated from of the burial mounds of high Scythian aristocracy: Tovsta Mohyla, Haimanova Mohyla, Chmyrova Mohyla. Chronologically they are slightly differed from other pole-tops both with the image of deer on pear-shaped little bells from Tovsta Mohyla, and with the image of deer on flat cone bushes from Haimanova Mohyla. The question about the place of production of such pole-tops is still opened. Probably just these types of pole-tops could be produced in one workshop but not all known variety of objects as V. A. Ilinska thought. One of the problems to be solved by researchers is searching for such workshops. But if these objects have been moulded by wax models the task becomes more complicated.

STONE CRYPT IN THE BARROW X OF BELOGORSK BURIAL GROUND

As a result of the excavations completed in 2001 it became clear that the barrow X is one of elite barrows of Scythia. The crypt was constructed by Bosporan masters, whereas the mound of the barrow was built in Scythian traditions. Barrow X differs from the barrow of Besh-Oba IV which is located on the same necropolis but Scythian traditions are much more brightly expressed in it (Koltukhov, Senatorov 2019). The period of construction of this barrow can be dated to the second half of the 4th century BC. Possibly, the barrow IV precedes the barrow X and belongs to the moment when the Crimean Scythia and the clan «dynasty» of it’s nomarchs only began to form and natives of Steppe Scythia became its first representatives. Barrow X was built later, at that time when connections of new local dynasty with Bosporan kingdom got stronger, and the building of tombs in traditions of Bosporan funeral architecture became a norm in a funeral ceremony of privileged class of Crimean Scythia.&#x0D; We do not know same analogies of the burial chamber of the crypt of barrow X on European and Asian Bosporu, although in proportions are close to the crypt found in 1837 barrow at the city garden of Kerch which looking like the four-sided overlap. It is dated to the last quarter of the 4th century BC but may belong to the earlier time. The crypt of the second Tarasov kurgan on the Asian Bosporus usually dated to the 3rd c. BC but, most likely, it can be dated to the earlier period. In our case, the dating of the crypt is determined by the dating of the mound itself, and it was built no later than the 4th century BC.