Funding Formula Research Articles

Montana

This article addresses the changes to funding for the state of Montana in FY2023. Funding priorities include assistance for school leaders, early childhood education, and teacher recruitment and retention. There were no changes to the funding formula, as Montana operates on a biennium and changes occurred the year prior. Montana was awarded $1.25 billion as part of the CARES Act, as relief for COVID-19 funding. The total per pupil expenditure varies based on school configuration and can be found in the article under the heading, “Per Pupil Expenditure.” The overall FY2023 budget for education is $1,096,286,212.

Incidence and Outcomes of School Finance Litigation: 1968–2021

State courts regularly enter in school finance decision making. School finance court cases have proceeded one or more times in all but two states. Plaintiffs ask the courts to rule that the existing funding formula is unconstitutional under state constitutions, and the defendants call for continuation of the existing finance formula. By compiling and analyzing the universe of such cases, we can accurately describe the nature of the cases, the decisions made, and the long run impact on overall financing of schools. Defendants win a slight majority of decisions with, surprisingly, their victories coming most frequently in low spending states and in low achieving states. And, while plaintiff victories on average yield an immediate increase in funding, they have no influence on long run growth in school spending.

Designing Strategies Framework for Effective Funding Formula Implementation at Malaysian Public Universities

Over the past few decades, Malaysia's higher education system has undergone significant evolution and growth. With notable achievements in areas such as student enrolment, research publication, patents, and institutional excellence, the system has earned a global reputation and become a preferred destination for international students. However, the Ministry of Higher Education recognizes the need for the system to continue to evolve in order to stay current with global trends. A crucial element in this evolution is the provision of long-term funding to support and enhance the country's capacity to deliver high-quality education that meets international standards. In response to this need, the Ministry of Higher Education has proposed a change to the funding formula for Malaysian public universities, with the goal of improving the relationship between performance and outcomes. To this end, this study was conducted to design a strategy for the effective implementation of this new funding formula in Malaysian public universities. By providing a deeper understanding of the strategies required for successful implementation, the study's findings will be invaluable to both the Ministry of Higher Education and Malaysian public universities.

“We Service the Taxpayers and Families Where Others Do Not”: A Rural Community College Typology

ABSTRACT U.S. rural community colleges serve approximately 3.4 million students, yet there is very little research on these institutions. We conducted a mulitple case study to develop a typology of rural community college locations. We gathered and analyzed publicly available data (n = 25) and private institutional data (n = 6) and conducted in-person interviews (n = 27), site visits (n = 7), and telephone interviews (n = 21) across Pennsylvania’s rural community college locations. Our typology includes two main types: the college hub and satellite sites, and six satellite sub-types: focused site, outreach site, scaled hub, virtual site, partner site, and closing site. Our findings indicate the need to adjust state funding formulas to account for the work of rural community college employees and the interdependence of the rural locations, as well as to maximize the use of rural community college locations to the benefit of constituents and communities.

Consistency and Change: Districts’ Efforts to Engage Stakeholders Over Time

Background:Across families from all backgrounds, and for all students, when parents and the broader community engage in sustained systematic program improvements, schools and districts are more likely to focus on and maintain improvements. As a result, federal and state lawmakers have implemented engagement mandates. The ways in which these mandates are interpreted and implemented influence the success of the engagement practices.Research Design:We conducted a comparative case study and analyzed state representative survey data.Research Questions:How has Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) local engagement played out over time? What has been learned? What may be facilitating and inhibiting “meaningful” engagement?Conclusions:Through the lens of democratic engagement, we find broad community and district leadership support for the ideals of community engagement. However, we also find that community engagement over time has generally lacked both depth and breadth and was specifically constrained for traditionally marginalized communities. Our analysis also identifies outlier districts that have established ways to implement broader and deeper engagement activities that focus on utilizing their communities as assets. Our research suggests that district leaders and educators need greater support to fully realize these democratic processes.

Is the California Local Control Funding Formula Equitably Serving American Indian and Alaska Native Students?

Is the California Local Control Funding Formula Equitably Serving American Indian and Alaska Native Students?

Decolonizing Water Discussions: A Look at the Indigenous Water Crisis in Canada from an Anti-Settler Colonialist Perspective

Introduction: Canada is one of the most water-rich countries in the world, so it may be surprising to hear that many Indigenous communities do not have access to clean drinking water. Due to colonial legacies that have been supported in Western society for centuries, Indigenous Peoples have been denied guaranteed access to clean drinking water by the Canadian government. This is a violation of fundamental human rights. Furthermore, research in this area is incredibly important to Indigenous Peoples’ quality of life in Canada. Previous research has shown that drinking tap water filled with parasites, bacteria, and heavy metals can lead to serious health, socio-economic, and cultural issues in Indigenous communities. This research protocol aims to survey members of several Indigenous communities in Canada to gain insight on the state of water quality, chemically analyze the water, and understand settler-colonialism’s role in modern day policy to improve water accessibility in those communities. Methods: This study will focus on determining the accessibility, reliability, and quality of drinking water made available by the Canadian government compared to alternatively sourced water, if applicable. For alternative water sources, biocultural indicators, and the observational indicators used to assess water, utilized by Indigenous community members will be recorded. Samples of water from multiple sources will be collected and analyzed for turbidity, and the presence of pathogens. Results: As a proposed study we have predicted findings based on existing literature. We expect significant reports of water advisories and the usage of alternative sources of water or unsafe drinking water, posing an increased risk for health issues such as higher rates of gastrointestinal diseases, diabetes, and obesity. Discussion: Funding issues serve as one of the key underlying obstacles to drinking water advisories in Canada, both in terms of underfunding and an outdated funding formula for water treatment systems. The means to sustain and employ these systems are crucial to ensure safe drinking water is continually available. Conclusion: It is our hope that through this research, we will contribute data that will better inform policy and awareness to improve the equitable access to clean water in Indigenous communities across Canada.

Revenue and Expenditure Base of Municipalities at Gandaki Province

The funding scheme from federal and provincial government had a positive impact on equity through the formula funding scheme. However, property taxes; house and land tax; house and land rent tax; business tax; rental or lease tax; parking fees; herbs, scraps, wildlife tax and service charges are the main sources of income of municipalities. An efficient revenue base allows local governments to provide reasonably efficient services to their people. By considering this issue, the study served primarily as a quantitative study. Using a descriptive and causal comparative study design, expert opinions on key indicators of income and expenditure, and their relative importance for assessing the financial health of the municipal unit and collect opinions on actions that should be taken to improve through Key Informant Interviews (KII) checklists. The main informants were municipal executive-level officials or elected authorities. A checklist was prepared for KII instruction by considering existing literature and consulting the experts of the related field. Out of the 85 municipalities, 27 municipalities were selected as sampling units. The sample represents approximately 32% of the population. The secondary data required for the study was collected from the Annual Reports and Audit Reports of sample municipalities of the office of the auditor general. Federal and state grants play an important role in supporting local government spending. Overall, local governments have found themselves gradually strengthening their income and expenditure bases to improve their financial viability, putting them on the path to financially sustainable development.

Institutional earmarks: the earmark moratorium and federal highway spending

AbstractIn 2010, the United States Congress placed a moratorium on earmarks – congressionally mandated spending projects. But did the earmark moratorium actually rid public policy of earmarks? I use earmark data and 2010–2020 state-level highway funding metrics to examine the relationship between previously expired transportation earmarks and federal highway funding during the earmark moratorium. Earmarks in the 2005 surface transportation law (SAFETEA-LU) continued to benefit certain states in 2020, even though the projects technically expired in 2009. This is because the funding “formulas” established by all post-2009 surface transportation laws were fully determined by the highway allocation percentage each state received in the preceding year, inclusive of earmarks. Further, I find the relationship between SAFETEA-LU earmarks and state funding disparities strengthened from 2010 to 2020, meaning the expired earmarks increased in policy significance during the moratorium. Highly earmarked states became even more advantaged after the earmarks were institutionalised into the highway funding formula.

Is School Funding Unequal in Latin America? A Cross-Country Analysis of Interregional Disparities in Public Spending

Education spending has increased significantly in Latin America, but less is known about how resources are distributed. Using original data, this study measures the inequality in per-pupil spending between regions with different levels of socioeconomic status within Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. We find that Brazil has the widest funding gap due to inequalities in local revenues between high- and low-socioeconomic-status regions. However, the country’s funding gap has narrowed over time. School funding in Colombia has become more regressive, but its gap is half the size of the gap in Brazil. The distribution of school funding in Peru has changed from being regressive to progressive. Education spending in Chile and in Ecuador is consistently progressive. However, while the progressiveness of funding in Ecuador is driven by transfers targeted at disadvantaged rural areas, the funding formulas in Chile address socioeconomic inequalities beyond the rural-urban gap.

Needs for shelter or housing assistance among people with diagnosed HIV by jurisdiction: United States, 2015-2020.

To describe the landscape of needs for housing assistance among people with HIV (PWH) and availability of Housing Opportunities for People with AIDS (HOPWA) funding with respect to housing service needs, nationally and for 17 US jurisdictions. The CDC Medical Monitoring Project (MMP) is an annual, cross-sectional survey designed to report nationally and locally representative estimates of characteristics and outcomes among adults with diagnosed HIV in the United States. We analyzed 2015-2020 data from MMP and 2019 funding data from HOPWA. Weighted percentages and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for national and jurisdiction-level estimates were reported. Nationally, 1 in 4 (27.7%) PWH had shelter or housing service needs. Among those who needed housing services, 2 in 5 (40.4%) did not receive them (range: 21.3% in New York to 62.3% in Georgia). Reasons for unmet needs were multifactorial and varied by jurisdiction. Available 2019 HOPWA funding per person in need would cover up to 1.24 months of rent per person nationally (range: 0.53 months in Virginia to 9.54 months in Puerto Rico), and may not have matched housing assistance needs among PWH in certain jurisdictions. Addressing housing service needs necessitates a multipronged approach at the provider, jurisdiction, and national level. Locally, jurisdictions should work with their partners to understand and address housing service needs among PWH. Nationally, distribution of HOPWA funding for housing services should be aligned according to local needs; the funding formula could be modified to improve access to housing services among PWH.

COMMUNITY LEGAL WORKERS IN ONTARIO: A PARALEGAL CASE STUDY

This article examines the history of community legal workers in Ontario, within the context of the community legal clinic movement that began in Toronto, in the early seventies. Tracing the emergence and development of community legal clinics and how their role has changed, the author directly connects the changes in the legislation, as well as the administrative changes in clinic governance, to the shifting role of the CLW’s within Ontario’s community legal clinics. The article identifies the shift in the CLW’s role from one largely of community outreach and education addressing systemic problems in access to justice, to one where, increasingly, CLWs are principally expected to address the growing demand for casework and related tasks. Ontario’s experience illustrates how funding formulas and models of governance directly impact not only on the way in which legal clinics connect to their community, but also how they contribute to social change. The significance of the innovative and strategic use of community legal workers is underlined by theircontinued importance within Ontario’s growing community legal clinic system.

Policy impacts of statistical uncertainty and privacy.

Funding formula reform may help address unequal impacts of uncertainty from data error and privacy protections.

Do Districts Using Weighted Student Funding Formulas Deliver More Dollars to Low-income Students?

ABSTRACT School districts have increasingly adopted weighted student funding (WSF) formulas that allocate dollars, rather than staff positions, to schools in the name of equity and flexibility. While research to date has studied equity in some of these districts, there is no research that examines the entire cohort of WSF districts together. This paper examines how equitably 20 WSF districts distribute dollars to their schools measured against a cohort of 20 comparable districts that use a traditional, centralized staffing model. We find that while a majority of all 40 study districts drive more dollars to low-income students, low-income students in WSF districts are more likely than their peers in other districts both to receive additional dollars and to receive a greater share of district expenditures. We also find that WSF districts that have had their formula in place for longer are more equitable than recent adopters.

Spending More on the Poor? A Comprehensive Summary of State-Specific Responses to School Finance Reforms from 1990–2014

Abstract Sixty-seven school finance reforms (SFRs), a combination of court-ordered and legislative reforms, have taken place since 1990; however, there is little empirical evidence on the heterogeneity of SFR effects. In this study, we estimate the effects of SFRs on revenues and expenditures between 1990 and 2014 for twenty-six states. We find that, on average, per pupil spending increased, especially in low-income districts relative to high-income districts. However, underlying these average effect estimates, the distribution of state-level effect sizes ranges from negative to positive—there is substantial heterogeneity. When predicting SFR impacts, we find that multiple state-level SFRs, union strength, and some funding formula components are positively associated with SFR effect sizes in low-income districts. We also show that, on average, states without SFRs adopted funding formula components and increased K–12 state revenues similarly to states with SFRs.

Has there been a Change in the Need for Additional Funds due to Covid 19? Influencing Factors

The need for additional funds is very much needed in situations of increased sales and macroeconomic conditions. Covid-19 Outbreak affects the firm's financial condition. The need for additional funds can be influenced by internal financial factors such as the amount of capital intensity, spontaneous and current liabilities and retained earnings. This study aims to empirically examine the factors that influence the need for funds on the 2018-2020. Observation of the data using the 2018-2020 quarterly data study. The method used to calculate the formula for additional funding needed during crisis and non-crisis and use the SPSS IBM 20 statistical tool for multiple linear regression that examines the causal relationship of variables for additional funds. The results obtained are that there is effect of the capital intensity factor, current liabilities and retained earnings on the need for additional funds, while partially the capital intensity and retained earnings have a positive effect on the need for additional funds, but the current liability factor cannot significantly affect the need for additional funds. The results of this study contribute that quarterly data provide more detailed results in developing literature related to the need for additional funds and capital intensity and the factors that influence them more so that changes can be analyzed periodically, not annually.

The higher education funding formula review process: Best practices

AbstractThis chapter describes a comprehensive set of best practices for the evaluation of state formula funding models and state higher education funding in general, based on existing practices within the United States. It represents a review of practices that lead to stakeholder engagement as an objective, collaborative process.

Approaches to Serving Rural Older Adults in State Plans on Aging: A Policy Content Evaluation.

Every state is required to submit a State Plan on Aging describing how it will use resources from the Older Americans Act (OAA), including a section specific to serving rural older adults. This paper describes a policy content evaluation of all 50 State Plans on Aging, focusing on Section 307(a)(10), which describes how states will serve rural older adults. We identified the most common and innovative approaches to using OAA funds to serve rural older adults across states. The most common information included about using OAA funds to serve rural older adults was describing the funding formula used to allocate resources. However, states varied in their definition of rural and in the details of their funding formulas. A minority of states also described additional approaches to serving rural older adults, including prioritizing Black, Indigenous, or rural residents of color; outreach; and targeted service delivery.

Cooperative extension, experiment station, and Land Grant Universities: Competitors or partners for state funding?

AbstractThe Cooperative Extension Service (CES) and agricultural experiment station (AES) have been integral parts of the Land Grant Universities (LGUs) for over 100 years. State formula funding has been the predominant source of funding for both CES and AES and also has been important to the LGUs. From 2008 to 2018, state funding remained essentially flat for all three entities, even when state budgets grew by 35%. LGU budgets increased by 52%, bolstered by healthy increases in tuition and fees, revenue from auxiliary services, and growth in grant funds. Some LGU leaders have reacted to the reduced or flat funding from the states by seeking to redirect funding from CES and AES to the LGU general budget. In this paper, we explore the fiscal relationship between these three entities, as well as identifying those factors that influenced changes in their budgets over the 2004–2018 period. All three entities function as complements in the budgeting process, rather than competing with each other for funds. Viewed across the states, CES operates from the strongest position politically, particularly among rural communities. AES is viewed much like the LGUs, subject to the same budgetary and political forces. Of particular concern is the apparent loss of political support by AES from the agricultural and rural communities.

Assessing need for primary care services: analysis of New Zealand Health Survey data.

Introduction The 2001 Primary Health Care Strategy provided significant new government funding for primary care (general practice and related services) via capitation funding formulas. However, there remain important unanswered questions about how capitation funding formulas should be redesigned to ensure equitable and sustainable service provision to all population groups. Aim To compare levels of chronic illness, utilisation, and unmet need in patients categorised as 'high-need' with those categorised as non-'high-need' using the definitions that are used in the current funding context, in order to inform primary care funding formula design. Methods Respondents of the New Zealand Health Survey (2018-19) were categorised into 'high-need' and non-'high-need', as defined in current funding formulas. We analysed: (i) presence, and number, of chronic diseases; (ii) self-reported primary care utilisation (previous 12 months); and (iii) self-reported unmet need for primary care (previous 12 months). Analyses used integrated survey weights to account for survey design. Results In total, 29% of respondents were 'high-need', of whom 50.2% reported one or more chronic conditions (vs 47.8% of non-'high-need' respondents). 'High-need' respondents were more likely than non-'high-need' respondents to: report three or more chronic conditions (14.4% vs 13.7%); visit a general practitioner more often (seven or more visits per year: 9.9% vs 6.6%); and report barriers to care. Discussion There is an urgent need for further quantification of the funding requirements of general practices serving high proportions of 'high-need' patients in order to ensure their viability, sustainability and the provision of quality of care.