Fundamental Movement Skill Competency Research Articles

Exploring the motor skill proficiency barrier among children with intellectual disabilities: Analysis at a behavioural component level.

Models of childhood motor development began to emerge in the 1960's. Since then, numerous models have proposed the importance of obtaining a proficient level of fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence during childhood and deemed it to be critical for participation in lifelong sports and physical activity. This study examined FMS at the behavioural component level in children with intellectual disabilities (CwID) (n = 100, 60% boys, aged 5-12 years). Participants were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition (TGMD-3) and the balance subtest from Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 (BOT-2). For the whole sample, 0% participants mastered all 10 FMS, 1% (n = 1) participants mastered all 4 locomotor skills while 0% (n = 100) participants mastered all ball skills. A multiple regression was carried out to investigate whether the interaction of gender and age was a predictor of FMS proficiency. Linear regressions were also carried out to investigate whether gender or age was a predictor of FMS proficiency. The results presented will help to identify weaknesses in skills at the behavioural component level and will enable researchers and practitioners to address low levels of motor skill proficiency among CwID.

Investigating the direct and indirect effects of a school-based leadership program for primary school students: Rationale and study protocol for the 'Learning to Lead' cluster randomised controlled trial.

Leadership is a valuable skill that can be taught in school, and which may have benefits within and beyond the classroom. Learning to Lead (L2L) is a student-led, primary school-based leadership program whereby older 'peer leaders' deliver a fundamental movement skills (FMS) program to younger 'peers' within their own school. The aims of the study are to determine the efficacy of a peer-led FMS intervention on: (i) peer leaders' (aged 10 to 12 years) leadership effectiveness (primary outcome), leadership self-efficacy, well-being, and time on-task in the classroom; (ii) peers' (aged 8 to 10 years) physical activity levels, actual and perceived FMS competency, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular power, and executive functioning; and (iii) teachers' (referred to as 'school champions') work-related stress and well-being. L2L will be evaluated using a two-arm parallel group cluster randomised controlled trial. Twenty schools located within a two-hour drive of the University of Newcastle, Australia will be recruited. We will recruit 80 students (40 peer leaders and 40 peers) from each school (N = 1,600). L2L will be implemented in three phases: Phase 1 -school champions' training via a professional learning workshop; Phase 2 -school champions' delivery of leadership lessons to the peer leaders; and Phase 3 -peer leaders' delivery of the FMS program to their younger peers. The FMS program, consisting of 12 x 30-minute lessons, will be delivered over the course of one school term (10 weeks). Study outcomes will be assessed at baseline (between mid-March to June, Terms 1 and 2), intervention end (mid-August to September, Term 3), and follow-up (November to mid-December, Term 4. This trial was prospectively registered on the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR); registration number: ACTRN12621000376842.

The Effectiveness of Fundamental Movement Skill Interventions on Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity Levels in 5- to 11-Year-Old Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence is associated with physical activity during childhood, with higher FMS competence associated with higher physical activity levels; however, the effectiveness of FMS interventions in primary school-aged children is not fully understood. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of FMS interventions at improving daily levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in 5- to 11-year-old children. Systematic searches were completed in eight electronic databases (MEDLINE, CINAHL, PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, EMBASE, ERIC and Scopus). Studies were included if they were randomised or non-randomised controlled trials that implemented a physical activity intervention with an FMS component in 5- to 11-year-old children and included objectively measured daily levels of MVPA. Methodological quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tools for randomised and non-randomised controlled trials. Random effects meta-analysis was performed to determine the pooled intervention effect (mean difference) on minutes spent in MVPA with meta-regression for the use of an operationalised definition of FMS, in line with the criteria reported by Logan et al. RESULTS: A total of 19 studies were identified for review and 14 studies were eligible for meta-analysis. The pooled intervention effect was 4.3min (95% confidence interval [CI] - 0.03 to 8.8) of MVPA per day. The percentage of future studies likely to find an effect greater than the minimal clinically important difference was 47% (95% CI 22-70). Studies that attempted to conceptualise and define FMS by combining at least one of Logan and colleagues' operational definitions with a measure of FMS had a positive effect on daily MVPA (13.3min/day, 95% CI 8.0-18.6; R2 = 0.89). Meta-regression for the three levels of criteria reported by Logan et al. showed a linear increase in MVPA, with studies using all three criteria experiencing the largest additive effect (15.7min/day, 95% CI 8.9-22.6; R2 = 0.89). FMS interventions have the potential to increase daily levels of MVPA in 5- to 11-year-old children. However, future studies should concentrate on establishing an accurate conceptualisation of FMS and how FMS will be integrated within their intervention to further increase physical activity levels. Prospero registration number: CRD42017058718.

Dose response effects of the BWF Shuttle Time Programme on children’s actual and perceived fundamental movement skill competence

This study examined dose-response effects of the Badminton World Federation (BWF) Shuttle Time programme on fundamental movement skills (FMS) and perceived FMS competence in 6–9-year olds. Children (n = 158, 83 boys, 75 girls, Mean ± SD age = 7.6 ± .97) were randomly allocated into three conditions: Shuttle Time 2Xweek; Shuttle Time 1Xweek; 3) control (CON) group. The intervention groups undertook the BWF Shuttle Time programme over a 10-week period in place of both or one of their statutory Physical Education lessons. FMS was assessed from the Test of Gross Motor Development 2. Perceived competence was assessed via the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Assessments were undertaken pre, post and 10 weeks post intervention. For FMS, a significant time X group interaction (P = .001) was evident. There was no significant difference in FMS between groups at pre (P > .05). Post intervention there were significant differences in FMS between 2X week and 1XWeek (P = .007), 2Xweek and control (P = .0001) and 1X Week and control (P = .007). From post to 10-weeks post there were significant improvements in FMS (P = .001) for the 2X week group. A significant time X group interaction (P = .0001) also indicated that perceived competence increased significantly pre to post for 1Xweek and 2Xweek groups, but not CON groups and was maintained at 10 weeks post (all P = .001).

Association between Physical Activity and Fundamental Movement Skills in Preschool-Aged Children: Does Perceived Movement Skill Competence Mediate This Relationship?

Objectives: The purpose of this research is to examine whether perceived fundamental movement skills (FMS) competence mediated the relationship between actual FMS and physical activity (PA) in Hong Kong preschool-aged children. Design: A cross−sectional study. Methods: 148 preschool-aged children (43% girls; mean age = 4.52 ± 0.67 years) from five preschools/childcare centres completed all assessments. Actual FMS was rated using the Test of Gross Motor Development−2, whilst perceived FMS was assessed via the Pictorial Scale for Perceived Movement Skill Competence. PA was measured through accelerometry. A bootstrap method was used to assess the potential mediating effect of perceived movement skill competence on the relationship between actual FMS and PA. All mediation models were adjusted for sex and age. Results: Mediation analyses showed that the direct path between actual FMS and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was significant (b = 0.228, p = 0.008), as was the path between MVPA and actual FMS (b = 0.214, p = 0.008). However, perceived FMS competence did not mediate the association between actual FMS and MVPA in the models. Conclusions: Our results showed evidence of reciprocal pathways between actual FMS and MVPA, reinforcing the need to simultaneously target both domains as part of broader developmental strategies, initiated in early childhood. Unlike emergent adolescence, perceptions of movement skill competence do not play a significant role in influencing the relationship between actual FMS proficiency and MVPA in this developmental period.

Protocol for a quasi-experimental study examining the effect of a ball skills intervention on four domains of preschooler development.

Preschooler inactivity and insufficient motor development have serious long-term consequences. The Chinese Ministry of Education launched a nationwide football-focused pilot project aimed at kindergartens in 2019 and issued the policy "Notice on the Establishment of National Football Kindergartens" in 2020. However, the impact of fundamental movement skills (FMS) interventions on other aspects of child development is unclear. This study will evaluate the effects of ball skills physical education projects on the development of Chinese preschoolers' physical, motor, cognitive, and social competencies and examine the influencing factors. This is a quasi-experimental study evaluating how well the "Hello Sunshine" curriculum project promotes children's development over 10 weeks. The trial will be conducted from September 2021 to November 2021 in 12 classes from 3 kindergartens with a total of 249 children aged 4 to 6 years in Haikou, China. Pre- and posttest analyses will include tests on participants' physical fitness, FMS, cognitive self-regulation, and emotional competence. Participants' background information will be collected through questionnaires answered by parents and teachers. The intervention will focus on game-based basic ball skills. If this intervention provides evidence that these skills improve children's multidimensional development, it will support the promotion of similar programs in China. We will also outline the social-ecological factors affecting the intervention's results, providing further information for improving pedagogical methods related to preschool ball skills.

Fundamental Movement Skills and Accelerometer-Measured Physical Activity Levels during Early Childhood: A Systematic Review.

Early childhood is a key period for children to begin developing and practicing fundamental movement skills (FMS), while aiming to perform sufficient physical activity (PA). This study reviews the current evidence for the levels of achievement in FMS and PA measured using accelerometers among 4–5-year-old children and examines differences by gender. This review was conducted using the PRISMA framework. Keyword searches were conducted in Pubmed, Medline, Google Scholar and SPORTDiscus. Inclusion criteria included age: 4–5 years old; FMS measurement: Test of Gross Motor Development 2 and 3; PA measurement: objective methods; balance measurement: static single limb; study design: cross-sectional observational/descriptive, randomised control trials, intervention studies; language: English. Twenty-eight articles from twenty-one countries met the inclusion criteria and were split into either FMS and PA articles (n = 10) or balance articles (n = 18). Three articles showed children achieving 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA per day, two articles demonstrated significant differences between girls’ and boys’ performance of locomotor skills and five reported locomotor skills to be more proficient than object control skills at this age for both genders. Balance was measured in time (n = 12), points score (n = 3) or biomechanical variables (n = 3), displaying heterogeneity of not only measurement but also outcomes within these data, with static single limb balance held between 6.67 to 87.6 s within the articles. Four articles reported girls to have better balance than boys. There is little conclusive evidence of the current levels for FMS, PA and balance achievement in young children 4–5 years of age. The academic literature consistently reports low levels of FMS competence and mixed evidence for PA levels. Inconsistencies lie in balance measurement methodology, with broad-ranging outcomes of both low and high achievement at 4–5 years old. Further research is required to focus on increasing practice opportunities for children to improve their FMS, increase PA levels and establish sufficient balance ability. Consistent and comparable outcomes during early childhood through more homogenous methodologies are warranted.

Integrated Strength and Fundamental Movement Skill Training in Children: A Pilot Study.

Competence in fundamental movement skills is essential to enable children to be physically active. We investigated the effect of an integrated fundamental movement skill with a strength training intervention on children’s fundamental movement skills. Seventy-two (53% female) 10- to 11-year-old children from three primary schools assented to take part in this study (87% compliance). Schools were randomly allocated to a control (no intervention; n = 21), fundamental movement skill (FMS) (n = 18) or FMS and strength (FMS+; n = 20) group. Interventions were delivered twice weekly for four weeks, in addition to normal physical education. FMS competence was measured through the Canadian agility and movement skills assessment (CAMSA) (product-process) and through countermovement jump (CMJ) and 40-m sprint tests (product). Improvements were observed in the CAMSA in both FMS (4.6, 95% confidence intervals 2.9 to 6.4 Arbitrary Units (AUs), second-generation p-value (pδ) = 0.03) and FMS+ (3.9, 2.1 to 5.3 AU, pδ = 0.28) with no difference beyond our minimum threshold of 3 AU observed between these intervention groups (pδ = 1). Clear improvements in CMJ were observed in FMS+ relative to the control (25, 18 to 32%, pδ = 0) and FMS groups (15, 6.1 to 24%, pδ = 0). These preliminary data suggest combined FMS and strength training warrants further investigation as a tool to develop fundamental movement skills in children.

PHYSICAL LITERACY IN ELEMENTARY PHYSICAL EDUCATION: A SURVEY OF FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT SKILL PRACTICE PATTERNS

Background:Pediatric physical inactivity is a major public health concern. According to the 2017 State of Play report, only 24% of youth meet the recommended physical activity (PA) dosage. Previous studies identified fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency as a predictor of physical literacy and PA. Mastery of FMS requires direct instruction and practice; however, it is unknown how well FMS are implemented in physical education (PE).Hypothesis/Purpose:To describe FMS practice patterns in the elementary PE curriculum. We had two hypotheses: 1) Fewer PE teachers provide comprehensive FMS instruction in later curriculum (grades 4-6) compared to early curriculum (grades 1-3) and 2) Fewer PE teachers teach FMS with direct instruction methods in later curriculum compared to early curriculum.Methods:A cross sectional survey design was used. PE teachers (grades 1-6) were recruited via electronic mail from various U.S. regions from January 2018 to March 2019. An electronic questionnaire was developed to ask about timing of FMS teaching and method of instruction. Additional questions were asked about methods used to evaluate FMS proficiency, including use of a standardized assessment of gross motor development, referrals and remediation recommended for children who appeared to be falling behind, and perceived barriers to FMS instruction. Chi-square tests (p<0.05) were employed.Results:We collected 87 responses with approximately 9% from West, 42% from Midwest, and 49% from South regions. Among all responses, 54% of PE teachers taught all FMS and 40% taught all FMS with direct instruction. Approximately, 66 % taught all FMS for grades 1-3 compared to 42% for grades 4-6 (p<0.0001). Regarding instruction methods, 47% of teachers for grades 1-3 utilized direct instruction to teach all FMS compared to 27% for grades 4-6 (p=0.0007). Only 3.7% of teachers used a standardized assessment of gross motor development to evaluate FMS proficiency. For children who appeared to be falling behind, 6.7% of teachers reported accepting the child’s “best effort” in participation. Only 7.3% reported referring to an exercise program and no PE teacher sought a healthcare referral. Time was reported as the greatest barrier to improving a child’s FMS competency in 52.4% of responses.Conclusion:Results suggests that fewer PE teachers teach all FMS in late elementary PE curriculum compared to early curriculum. Additionally, fewer teachers utilize direct instruction methods to teach skills in late elementary curriculum. With time reported as the greatest barrier, a more efficient screening tool to evaluate FMS competency may be needed.

Effects of a Need-Supportive Motor Skill Intervention on Children’s Motor Skill Competence and Physical Activity

A need-supportive environment can provide various motivational benefits to impact children’s psychomotor developmental levels. However, very little is known about the effects of need-supportive motor skill intervention on children’s motor skill competence and physical activity by gender. Guided by self-determination theory (SDT), this study aimed to (a) investigate the effect of a need-supportive fundamental movement skill (FMS) program on children’s FMS competence and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and (b) explore potential gender differences in these effects. Thirty-six children (63.8% girls; Mage = 6.52 ± 0.97) participated and were divided into two groups: an intervention group (24 need-supportive FMS sessions over eight weeks) and a control group. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the influence of the motor skill intervention on FMS competence and MVPA over time by group (intervention, control) and gender (boys, girls). The results showed (a) significant group differences between the intervention and control group in FMS competence and MVPA (p < 0.001), (b) non-significant gender differences between boys and girls in FMS competence and MVPA (p = 0.85), and (c) non-significant interaction effects over time (p = 0.52). The findings highlight that a need-supportive FMS program may enhance FMS development and daily physical activity for both genders during the early school years.

The A + FMS cluster randomized controlled trial: An assessment-based intervention on fundamental movement skills and psychosocial outcomes in primary schoolchildren

ObjectivesTo evaluate the effectiveness of an assessment-based intervention that emphasizes fun, mastery, and support (A+FMS) on primary schoolchildren’s fundamental movement skills (FMS), perceptions of physical and movement skill competence, teacher support and enjoyment. DesignCluster randomized controlled trial. MethodsTen clusters (classes) (n=282; mean age 8.4 years, SD 0.56) were randomised to the A+FMS or wait-list control group in a 1:1 ratio. Teachers in the A+FMS group were required to attend six hours of training and integrate 550min of assessment for learning strategies into their PE lessons for up to a maximum of 13 weeks. FMS competence in jump, skip, hop, overhand throw, dribble and catch was the primary outcome assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd Edition. Secondary outcome measures included perceptions of physical and FMS competence, teacher support, and student enjoyment using questionnaires. Multilevel modelling for the analysis of clustered data was used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. ResultsSignificant intervention effects were found for locomotor skills (adjusted mean difference, 2.47 units; Cohen’s d=0.76), overall FMS competence (3.72 units; Cohen’s d=0.93) and perceived teacher support (0.21 units; Cohen’s d=0.05). However, there was a group-by-time effect for perceived physical competence (−0.16 units; Cohen’s d=−0.07) in favouring of the control group. ConclusionsAn assessment-based teacher-led FMS intervention was effective in improving FMS proficiency in primary schoolchildren. The results highlight the need for increased teacher support to develop positive self-perceptions of competence while promoting children’s FMS.Trial registration CUHK_CCRB00479.

Better together: Investigating the holistic benefits of father–daughter co-physical activity with mediation analyses

Introduction: Observational evidence suggests that father–daughter co-physical activity may be associated with physical and psychological benefits for girls. However, this has not been explored in experimental research. Moreover, although fathers may influence their daughters’ physical activity, they often: (i) are less involved with their daughters than mothers and (ii) discount their role in fostering their daughters PA. Therefore, the current study examined data from the ‘Dads And Daughters Exercising and Empowered’ (DADEE) randomized controlled trial (RCT) to determine whether improvements in father–daughter co-physical activity significantly mediated the intervention's positive effects on girls’ physical activity, social-emotional wellbeing, fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence and father–daughter relationship quality.

Associations between fundamental movement skill competence, physical activity and psycho-social determinants in Hong Kong Chinese children

ABSTRACTAssociations between fundamental movement skills (FMS), perceived competence, enjoyment and physical activity (PA) have not been widely investigated among Chinese school children. We hypothesised that FMS would be directly related to self-reported and objectively measured PA, and indirectly related to these outcomes via perceived physical and movement skill competence, and enjoyment. Participants were 763 primary school children (age = 9.3 ± 1.7 years; 474 girls) across grades. FMS were measured for a subsample (n = 603) using Test of Gross Motor Development-2. PA using accelerometers was obtained from this subgroup (n = 238). All participating children completed a questionnaire measuring their PA participation, enjoyment, and perceived physical and movement skill competence. Structural equation modelling revealed positive associations between locomotor skills and perceived movement skill competence (β = .11, 95% CI [.001, .22]), and between perceived movement skill competence and objectively measured PA (β = .59, 95% CI [.04, 1.14]). Perceived physical competence and enjoyment mediated the association between locomotor skills and self-reported PA (β = .08, 95% CI [.02, .12]), but not objectively measured PA. Given inconsistent findings for subjective and objective measures of PA, further mediation analyses of the association between FMS and PA may be warranted.

A comparison of parent report and actual motor competence in young children.

Parent proxy reports are well used in occupational therapy, yet historically parent report instruments of motor skill have not required parents to report on the same motor skills that their children are assessed on. The aim was to examine how well a parent report of children's fundamental movement skill (FMS) was associated with children's actual FMS. A sample of 100 children aged 7-9years from Melbourne, Australia, were recruited. Parents/guardians completed proxy report (parent version of the 'Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence' (PMSC)) and children's actual motor skills were assessed ('Test of Gross Motor Development' 3rd edition (TGMD-3)). Data were first analysed using Pearson's correlation coefficients and then hierarchical linear stepwise regression was conducted with actual skill as the outcome variable in each model. The PMSC-Parent (r=0.36, P<0.001) was moderately associated with children's actual skill. After age and sex adjustment, the PMSC-Parent explained 11.4% of variance in total skills. Parent report of their children's object control scores (PMSC object control scale) was significantly associated with children's actual object control (B=0.36, P<0.001) and explained 11.3% of the variance. Parent report of children's locomotion scores (PMSC locomotion scale) was associated with children's actual locomotor skills (B=0.27, P=0.007) and explained 6.2% of the variance. Parents are able to report to some degree on their children's FMS competency, in particular, their object control competence. Parent proxy report of FMS may help inform occupational therapists to identify children with low FMS competency to develop interventions targeting FMS.

Development of Foundational Movement Skills: A Conceptual Model for Physical Activity Across the Lifespan.

Evidence supports a positive association between competence in fundamental movement skills (e.g., kicking, jumping) and physical activity in young people. Whilst important, fundamental movement skills do not reflect the broad diversity of skills utilized in physical activity pursuits across the lifespan. Debate surrounds the question of what are the most salient skills to be learned which facilitate physical activity participation across the lifespan. In this paper, it is proposed that the term 'fundamental movement skills' be replaced with 'foundational movement skills'. The term 'foundational movement skills' better reflects the broad range of movement forms that increase in complexity and specificity and can be applied in a variety of settings. Thus, 'foundational movement skills' includes both traditionally conceptualized 'fundamental' movement skills and other skills (e.g., bodyweight squat, cycling, swimming strokes) that support physical activity engagement across the lifespan. A proposed conceptual model outlines how foundational movement skill competency can provide a direct or indirect pathway, via specialized movement skills, to a lifetime of physical activity. Foundational movement skill development is hypothesized to vary according to culture and/or geographical location. Further, skill development may be hindered or enhanced by physical (i.e., fitness, weight status) and psychological (i.e., perceived competence, self-efficacy) attributes. This conceptual model may advance the application of motor development principles within the public health domain. Additionally, it promotes the continued development of human movement in the context of how it leads to skillful performance and how movement skill development supports and maintains a lifetime of physical activity engagement.

Fundamental Movement Skills of Children Living in England: The Role of Ethnicity and Native English Language

The development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) has been associated with children's general health, and, while there is evidence to suggest that age, gender, physical activity, and socioeconomic status relate to FMS, the relationship of ethnicity and language barriers to FMS competence has been underexplored. These factors may be of particular interest for South Asian (SA) children who have lower physical activity and increased risk of metabolic disease. This cross-sectional study examined ethnic and language differences in FMS among 218 ethnically diverse five-year-old children (61 White ethnic background, 91 SA, 29 Black ethnic background, and 37 other), some with English as a native language ( n = 90) and some with English as an additional language ( n = 75), all recruited from within central England. Each child was assessed performing five locomotor skills (run, gallop, hop, leap, and jump) and six object skills (catch, kick, bounce, strike, underarm roll, and overarm throw) on the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 . A 2 (gender) × 4 (ethnicity) factor analysis of covariance assessed differences in the locomotor and object composite scores and total FMS score, while controlling for body mass index. A two-factor analysis of covariance assessed native language differences in their impact on FMS. We found ethnic and gender differences in FMS ( p < .05) in that SA children had poorer total FMS and locomotor scores than children of either White or Black ethnic backgrounds ( p = .004, p = .001, and p = .008, p = .002, respectively). Girls had poorer total ( p = .001) and locomotor FMS skills ( p < .001). Children with English as an additional language had similar FMS scores compared to children whose native language was English ( p > .05). The findings of low FMS competency in SA children and girls, irrespective of body mass index, suggest that developmentally appropriate interventions targeting SA children and girls are needed in early years. We discuss some unclear factors related to these differences.

Pictorial Scale of Physical Self-Concept for Younger Children (P-PSC-C): A Feasibility Study

Children’s self-perception of motor skills and physical fitness is said to be an important mediator between skills and physical fitness on the one hand and physical activity on the other hand. An age-appropriate self-perception scale is needed to understand the development and the differentiation of the physical self-concept of children and its components. Therefore, the objectives of this study were (1) to develop a pictorial scale of physical fitness for pre-school children (3–6 years old), and (2) to describe the face validity and feasibility of the scale. The study sample included 27 kindergarten children. In order to determine the psychometric properties, validity was assessed by administrating the Pictorial Scale for Physical Self-Concept in Kindergarten Children (P-PSC-C) compared with children’s fundamental movement skill competency (Test of Gross Motor Development [TGMD]-3; six locomotor and seven object-control skills), height, weight, and demographics. The face validity was favorable. Expectable negatively skewed response distributions were found in all items. Medium correlations with related constructs and with sport enjoyment were found. The results indicate that the new scale is usable for kindergarten children. Future validation studies are needed so that the new scale can contribute to the research about physical self-concept development in kindergarten children.

Investigation Into the Relationship Between Adolescents’ Perceived and Actual Fundamental Movement Skills and Physical Activity

Objectives: To explore the relationship between fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence, perceived FMS competence, and physical activity (PA) in adolescents. Methods: The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD), the TGMD 2nd Edition (TGMD-2), and the Victorian Skills manual were used to assess FMS competence (locomotor, object control, and stability). The Physical Self Confidence scale was used to assess perceived FMS competence (locomotor, object control, and stability). Moderate-to-vigorous intensity PA (MVPA) was measured via accelerometry. Multi-level modelling analyses was used to examine (i) actual FMS as the predictor and perceived FMS as the outcome, (ii) perceived FMS as the predictor and MVPA as the outcome, and (iii) actual FMS as the predictor and MVPA as the outcome. All analyses were completed for each subtest of FMS (locomotor, object control, and stability). Results: A total of 584 adolescents (boys n = 278) aged 12.82–15.25 years (M = 13.78, SD = .42) participated in this study. Actual stability was associated with perceived stability (p &lt; .01) and MVPA (p &lt; .05) in boys. This was not found true for girls; however, actual locomotor skills were associated with MVPA (p ≤ .05). Boys scored significantly higher than girls for FMS proficiency, perceived FMS, and MVPA (p &lt; .05). Discussion: Gender differences may exist due to cultural gender differences in sport participation norms. Considering the magnitude of physical and psychological changes occurring during adolescence, it is recommended to track young people over time to better understand the relationship between perceived and actual FMS, as well as PA participation.

Determining Motor Development Status of 3-10 years old Children in Ahvaz City Using TGMD-3 Test

Introduction: The principle elements of motor development are fundamental movement skills (FMSs). The children with high levels of FMS are most likely to participate in health-related physical activities. This study aimed to determine motor development status of 3-10 year-old children in Ahvaz, Iran. Methods: The research strategy and design were descriptive-normative and cross-sectional, respectively. A total of 1600 children aged 3-10 years were chosen from 8 regions of Ahvaz using cluster-sampling. The instrument used for data-collection was Test of Gross Motor Development – third edition (TGMD-3). In order to analyze the data, multivariate and Tukey post-hoc analyses were used along with Mann-Whitney U and chi-square tests. Results: Results showed that boys, compared to girls, had better levels of performance in locomotor skills of running, horizontal jump and sliding, while girls performed galloping and skipping better than boys. In all ball skills, boys had significant higher levels of performance compared to girls., Results also revealed that in both subtests, performance enhanced with age increase. Prevalence of low motor proficiency was observed in skipping, forehand strike and overhand throw, while there was prevalence of mastery in hoping, sliding, dribble and catching. Low motor proficiency was observed for several FMSs in girls. Conclusion: Girls, compared to the boys of the same age, had lower levels of performance in all ball skills and some of locomotor skills. This result shows they are at the risk of unhealthy motor development; therefore, it is suggested that special programs and equal opportunities be prepared for them in order to enhance their motor competence in FMS.

Improving Early Adolescent Girls' Motor Skill: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial.

Physical activity (PA) levels decline substantially during adolescence and are consistently lower in girls. Competency in a range of fundamental movement skills (FMSs) may serve as a protective factor for the decline in PA typically observed in adolescent girls; yet, girls' mastery in FMS is low. Although interventions can improve FMS, there is a lack of interventions targeting girls, and very few are conducted in high schools. In addition, interventions are usually conducted by researchers, not teachers, and thus have little chance of being embedded into curricula. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a school-based intervention, delivered by teachers, in improving adolescent girls' FMS. Four all-girls Australian secondary schools were recruited and randomized into intervention or control groups. In total, 190 year 7 girls (103 control/87 intervention; mean age, 12.4 ± 0.3 yr) completed baseline and posttest measures at 12 wk. Six FMS (i.e., catch, throw, kick, jump, leap, and dodge) were measured using the Victorian FMS Assessment instrument. Mixed models with posttest skill (i.e., locomotor, object control, and total skill) as the outcome, adjusting for baseline skill, intervention and control status, and relevant covariates, as well as accounting for clustering at school and class level, were used to assess the intervention impact. There were significant intervention effects, and large effect sizes (Cohen d) noted in locomotor (P = 0.04, t = 5.15, d = 1.6), object control (P < 0.001, t = 11.06, d = 0.83), and total skill (P = 0.02, t = 7.22, d = 1.36). Teachers adequately trained in authentic assessment and student-centered instruction can significantly improve the FMS competency of early adolescent girls. Therefore, comprehensive teacher training should be viewed as an integral component of future school-based interventions.