Functional Testing Techniques Research Articles

Big Data Testing Techniques: Taxonomy, Challenges and Future Trends

Big Data is reforming many industrial domains by providing decision support through analyzing large data volumes. Big Data testing aims to ensure that Big Data systems run smoothly and error-free while maintaining the performance and quality of data. However, because of the diversity and complexity of data, testing Big Data is challenging. Though numerous research efforts deal with Big Data testing, a comprehensive review to address testing techniques and challenges of Big Data is not available as yet. Therefore, we have systematically reviewed the Big Data testing techniques’ evidence occurring in the period 2010–2021. This paper discusses testing data processing by highlighting the techniques used in every processing phase. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges and future directions. Our findings show that diverse functional, non-functional and combined (functional and non-functional) testing techniques have been used to solve specific problems related to Big Data. At the same time, most of the testing challenges have been faced during the MapReduce validation phase. In addition, the combinatorial testing technique is one of the most applied techniques in combination with other techniques (i.e., random testing, mutation testing, input space partitioning and equivalence testing) to find various functional faults through Big Data testing.

Assessment of Hepatic Function, Perfusion and Parenchyma Attenuation with Indocyanine Green, Ultrasound and Computed Tomography in a Rat Model: Preliminary Standardization of Baseline Parameters in a Healthy Liver

Introduction: The standardization in experimental animal models plays a crucial role in pre-clinical studies. However, it is necessary to combine these determinations with dynamic functional test and imaging techniques to implement a non-invasive protocol for liver evaluation. Methods: Six healthy SD rats were followed for 4 weeks. The aim of the study was to determine hepatic function, perfusion and parenchyma attenuation with analytical and biochemical blood parameters, indocyanine green, ultrasound and computed tomography. Results: Indocyanine green clearance 5 and 10 minutes after its injection was 80.12% and 96.59%, respectively. Approximate rate of decay during the first 5 minutes after injection was 38% per minute. Hepatic perfusion evaluation with the high-frequency ultrasound was related to cardiovascular hemodynamic and renal perfusion. Portal area, hepatic artery resistance index, hepatic artery and portal peak systolic velocity and average between hepatic artery and porta was 3.41 ± 0.62 mm2, 0.57 ± 0.04 mm2/s, 693.24±102.53 mm2/s, 150.72 ± 17.80 mm2/s and 4.82 ± 0.96 mm2/s, respectively. Heart rate, cardiac output, left renal artery diammetre and renal blood flow were 331.01 ± 22.22 bpm, 75.58 ± 8.72 mL/min, 0.88 ± 0.04 mm2 and 13.65 ± 1.95 mm2/s. CT-scan hepatic average volume for each rat were 21.08±3.32, 17.57±2.76, 14.87±2.83 and 13.67±2.45 cm3 with an average attenuation coefficient of 113.51±18.08, 129,19±7.18, 141,47±1.95 y 151,67±1.2 HU (Figure). Conclusion: Indocyanine green and high-frequency ultrasound could be used in rats as a suitable marker of liver function. Computed tomography, through the study of raw data could help to characterize liver parenchyma.

Assessment of hepatic function, perfusion and parenchyma attenuation with indocyanine green, ultrasound and computed tomography in a healthy rat model: Preliminary determination of baseline parameters in a healthy liver.

Defining reference intervals in experimental animal models plays a crucial role in pre-clinical studies. The hepatic parameters in healthy animals provide useful information about type and extension of hepatic damage. However, in the majority of the cases, to obtain them require an invasive techniques. Our study combines these determinations with dynamic functional test and imaging techniques to implement a non-invasive protocol for liver evaluation. The aim of the study was to determine reference intervals for hepatic function, perfusion and parenchyma attenuation with analytical and biochemical blood parameters, indocyanine green, ultrasound and computed tomography in six healthy SD rats. Six males healthy SD rats were followed for 4 weeks. To determine hepatic function, perfusion and parenchyma attenuation analytical and biochemical blood parameters, indocyanine green, ultrasound and computed tomography were studied. Results were expressed as Means ± standard error of mean (SEM). The significance of differences was calculated by using student t-test, p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Indocyanine green clearance 5 and 10 minutes after its injection was 80.12% and 96.59%, respectively. Approximate rate of decay during the first 5 minutes after injection was 38% per minute. Hepatic perfusion evaluation with the high-frequency ultrasound was related to cardiovascular hemodynamic and renal perfusion. Portal area, hepatic artery resistance index, hepatic artery and portal peak systolic velocity and average between hepatic artery and porta was 3.41 ± 0.62 mm2, 0.57 ± 0.04 mm2/s, 693.24±102.53 mm2/s, 150.72 ± 17.80 mm2/s and 4.82 ± 0.96 mm2/s, respectively. Heart rate, cardiac output, left renal artery diammetre and renal blood flow were 331.01 ± 22.22 bpm, 75.58 ± 8.72 mL/min, 0.88 ± 0.04 mm2 and 13.65 ± 1.95 mm2/s. CT-scan hepatic average volume for each rat were 21.08±3.32, 17.57±2.76, 14.87±2.83 and 13.67±2.45 cm3 with an average attenuation coefficient of 113.51±18.08, 129,19±7.18, 141,47±1.95 y 151,67±1.2 HU. Indocyanine green and high-frequency ultrasound could be used in rats as a suitable marker of liver function. Computed tomography, through the study of raw data, help to characterize liver parenchyma, and could be a potential tool for early detection of liver parenchymal alterations and linear follow-up of patients. Further studies in rats with liver disease are necessary to verify the usefulness of these parameters.

Assessment of Hepatic Function and Parenchyma Attenuation with Indocyanine Green, Ultrasound and CT in a Rat Model: Preliminary Standardization of Baseline Parameters

Purpose: Standardization in experimental animal models plays a crucial role in preclinical studies by providing useful information on the type and extent of liver disease. However, it is necessary to combine these determinations with functional dynamics imaging and testing techniques to implement a non-invasive protocol for liver evaluation. Method: Six healthy SD rats were followed for 4 weeks. The aim was to determine hepatic function, perfusion and parenchyma attenuation with biochemical blood parameters, indocyanine green, ultrasound and computed tomography. Results: Indocyanine green clearance 5 and 10 minutes after its injection was 80.12% and 96.59%, respectively. Hepatic perfusion evaluation with the high-frequency ultrasound was related to cardiovascular hemodynamic and renal perfusion. Portal area, hepatic artery resistance index and average between hepatic artery and porta was 3.41 ± 0.62 mm 2 , 0.57 ± 0.04 mm 2 /s and 4.82 ± 0.96 mm 2 /s, respectively. Heart rate, cardiac output, left renal artery diammetre and renal blood flow were 331.01 ± 22.22 bpm, 75.58 ± 8.72 mL/min, 0.88 ± 0.04 mm 2 and 13.65 ± 1.95 mm 2 /s. CT-scan hepatic average volume for each rat were 21.08±3.32, 17.57±2.76, 14.87±2.83 and 13.67±2.45 cm 3 with an average attenuation coefficient of 113.51±18.08, 129,19±7.18, 141,47±1.95 y 151,67±1.2 HU. Conclusion: Indocyanine green and high-frequency ultrasound could be used in rats as a suitable marker of liver function. Computed tomography help to characterize liver parenchyma, and could be a potential tool for early detection and linear follow-up of patients. Further studies in rats with liver disease are necessary to verify the usefulness of these parameters.Table 1Indocyanine Green plasma clearance (ICG) rateICG plasma concentration (μg/mL)Min 1Min 5Min 10Rat 1128.1±55.61819.45±2.285.41±3.32Rat 2161.47±65.8228.58±9.235.75±3.60Rat 3160.63±27.6833.14±6.957.44±0.52Rat 4189.16±51.0538.13±2.863.47±0.05Rat 5165.91±23.9147.51±8.822.90±0.76Rat 6130.65±10.2119.24±3.546.91±0.99Average ICG Concentration (μg/mL)155.99±23.1131.01±11.015.31±1.82Average Clearance %0.0080.1296.59 Open table in a new tab μg/mL: microgram/mililitre

From Mouse to Man and Back: Closing the Correlation Gap between Imaging and Histopathology for Lung Diseases.

Lung diseases such as fibrosis, asthma, cystic fibrosis, infection and cancer are life-threatening conditions that slowly deteriorate quality of life and for which our diagnostic power is high, but our knowledge on etiology and/or effective treatment options still contains important gaps. In the context of day-to-day practice, clinical and preclinical studies, clinicians and basic researchers team up and continuously strive to increase insights into lung disease progression, diagnostic and treatment options. To unravel disease processes and to test novel therapeutic approaches, investigators typically rely on end-stage procedures such as serum analysis, cyto-/chemokine profiles and selective tissue histology from animal models. These techniques are useful but provide only a snapshot of disease processes that are essentially dynamic in time and space. Technology allowing evaluation of live animals repeatedly is indispensable to gain a better insight into the dynamics of lung disease progression and treatment effects. Computed tomography (CT) is a clinical diagnostic imaging technique that can have enormous benefits in a research context too. Yet, the implementation of imaging techniques in laboratories lags behind. In this review we want to showcase the integrated approaches and novel developments in imaging, lung functional testing and pathological techniques that are used to assess, diagnose, quantify and treat lung disease and that may be employed in research on patients and animals. Imaging approaches result in often novel anatomical and functional biomarkers, resulting in many advantages, such as better insight in disease progression and a reduction in the numbers of animals necessary. We here showcase integrated assessment of lung disease with imaging and histopathological technologies, applied to the example of lung fibrosis. Better integration of clinical and preclinical imaging technologies with pathology will ultimately result in improved clinical translation of (therapy) study results.

Structural and Functional Test Methods for Micro-Electrode-Dot-Array Digital Microfluidic Biochips

A digital microfluidic biochip (DMFB) is an attractive platform for immunoassays, point-of-care clinical diagnostics, DNA sequencing, and other laboratory procedures in biochemistry. More recently, DMFBs based on a micro-electrode-dot-array (MEDA) architecture have been proposed, and droplet manipulations on MEDA biochips have also been experimentally demonstrated. In order to ensure robust fluidic operations and high confidence in the outcome of biochemical experiments, MEDA biochips must be adequately tested before they can be used for bioassay execution. This paper presents the first approach for testing of MEDA biochips that include both CMOS circuits and microfluidic components. We first present structural test techniques to evaluate the pass/fail status of each microcell (droplet actuation, droplet maintenance, and droplet sensing) and identify faulty microcells. In order to ensure correct operation of functional units, e.g., mixers and diluters, we also present functional test techniques to address fundamental MEDA operations, such as droplet dispensing, transportation, mixing, and splitting. We evaluate the proposed test methods using simulations as well as experiments for fabricated MEDA biochips.

Exploring and expanding students’ success in software testing

PurposeTesting is one of the indispensable activities in software development and is being adopted as an independent course by software engineering (SE) departments at universities worldwide. The purpose of this paper is to carry out an investigation of the performance of learners about testing, given the tendencies in the industry and motivation caused by the unavailability of similar studies in software testing field.Design/methodology/approachThis study is based on the data collected over three years (between 2012 and 2014) from students taking the software testing course. The course is included in the second year of undergraduate curriculum for the bachelor of engineering (SE).FindingsIt has been observed that, from the performance perspective, automated testing outperforms structural and functional testing techniques, and that a strong correlation exists among these three approaches. Moreover, a strong programming background does help toward further success in structural and automated testing, but has no effect on functional testing. The results of different teaching styles within the course are also presented together with an analysis exploring the relationship between students’ gender and success in the software testing course, revealing that there is no difference in terms of performance between male and female students in the course. Moreover, it is advisable to introduce teaching concepts one at a time because students find it difficult to grasp the ideas otherwise.Research limitations/implicationsThese findings are based on the analysis conducted using three years of data collected while teaching a course in testing. Obviously, there are some limitations to this study. For example, student’s strength in programming is calculated using the score of C programming courses taken in previous year/semester. Such scores may not reflect their current level of programming knowledge. Furthermore, attempt was made to ensure that the exercises given for different testing techniques have similar difficulty level to guarantee that the difference in success between these testing techniques is due to the inherent complexity of the technique itself and not because of different exercises. Still, there is small probability that a certain degree of change in success may be due to the difference in the difficulty levels of the exercises. As such, it is obviously premature to consider the present results as final since there is a lack of similar type of studies, with which the authors can compare the results. Therefore, more work needs to be done in different settings to draw sound conclusions in this respect.Originality/valueAlthough there are few studies (see e.g. Chan et al., 2005; Garousi and Zhi, 2013; Ng et al., 2004) exploring the preference of testers over distinct software testing techniques in the industry, there appears to be no paper comparing the preferences and performances of learners in terms of different testing techniques.

Do we assess urethral function adequately in LUTD and NLUTD? ICI-RS 2015.

Urethral function, as well as anatomy, play a significant role in voiding reflex and abnormalities in one or both contribute to the pathophysiology of Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction (LUTD). We have several diagnostic tools to assess the urethral function or dysfunction but the question remains, are these adequate? This is a report of the proceedings of Think Tank P1: 'Do we assess urethral function adequately in LUTD and NLUTD?' from the annual International Consultation on Incontinence-Research Society, which took place September 22-24, 2014 in Bristol, UK. We have collected and discussed, as a committee, the evidence with regard to the urethra and the available relevant methods of testing urethral function, with the emphasis on female and male voiding dysfunction. We looked into previous research and clinical studies and compiled summaries of pertinent testing related to urethral function. The discussion has focused on clinical applications and the desirability of further development of functional tests and analyses in this field. There are limitations to most of the urethral function tests. Future perspectives and research should concentrate on further development of functional testing and imaging techniques with emphasis on standardization and clinical application of these tests. Neurourol. Urodynam. 36:935-942, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Proceso de pruebas para pequeñas organizaciones desarrolladoras de software

&lt;p&gt;Definir un proceso de pruebas dentro de una organización puede ser valioso en la medida en que permita: (i) incrementar la calidad del producto, (ii) facilitar la comunicación y la comprensión entre los miembros del equipo, (iii) apoyar la mejora continua del proceso, y (iv) soportar la ejecución automática de ciertas tareas. En este sentido, este artículo propone un proceso liviano definido para guiar y apoyar la realización de las pruebas en pequeñas organizaciones desarrolladoras de software. El proceso propuesto incorpora técnicas de pruebas funcionales con el objetivo de concretar las actividades requeridas para evaluar la funcionalidad de un producto software de manera organizada y sistemática, especialmente aquellas que tienen que ver con el diseño y ejecución de las pruebas. Este proceso ha sido definido a partir del análisis de los procesos de pruebas existentes en algunos modelos de referencia y en diferentes estudios revisados de la literatura. Tras su ejecución exitosa en una pequeña empresa de desarrollo software, se ha observado que este proceso puede ser útil y práctico para llevar a cabo las pruebas de un producto software por organizaciones de este tipo.&lt;/p&gt;

Caudate nucleus reactivity predicts perceptual learning rate for visual feature conjunctions

Useful information in the visual environment is often contained in specific conjunctions of visual features (e.g., color and shape). The ability to quickly and accurately process such conjunctions can be learned. However, the neural mechanisms responsible for such learning remain largely unknown. It has been suggested that some forms of visual learning might involve the dopaminergic neuromodulatory system (Roelfsema et al., 2010; Seitz and Watanabe, 2005), but this hypothesis has not yet been directly tested. Here we test the hypothesis that learning visual feature conjunctions involves the dopaminergic system, using functional neuroimaging, genetic assays, and behavioral testing techniques. We use a correlative approach to evaluate potential associations between individual differences in visual feature conjunction learning rate and individual differences in dopaminergic function as indexed by neuroimaging and genetic markers. We find a significant correlation between activity in the caudate nucleus (a component of the dopaminergic system connected to visual areas of the brain) and visual feature conjunction learning rate. Specifically, individuals who showed a larger difference in activity between positive and negative feedback on an unrelated cognitive task, indicative of a more reactive dopaminergic system, learned visual feature conjunctions more quickly than those who showed a smaller activity difference. This finding supports the hypothesis that the dopaminergic system is involved in visual learning, and suggests that visual feature conjunction learning could be closely related to associative learning. However, no significant, reliable correlations were found between feature conjunction learning and genotype or dopaminergic activity in any other regions of interest.

A Review on Structural Software-Based Self- Testing of Embedded Processors

Proposed software-based self-test (SBST) techniques for embedded processor testing recently emerged as an effective substitute to the hardware built-in self-test (BIST) and classical external tester-based testing. These SBST approaches provide the high quality at-speed testing with additional features and reduce the high cost of hardware. This paper presents a survey on the structural software-based self-testing (SBST) of embedded processors for manufacturing test. This paper goes over the main points of structural-based self-testing techniques for manufacturing and functional testing of an embedded processor (e.g. Hierarchical-based and Register-Transfer Level–based (RTL-based)). Finally, an overview of the remarkable accomplishments of SBST and the major challenges faced in making these techniques reliable for industrial processors is presented

Effectiveness for detecting faults within and outside the scope of testing techniques: an independent replication

The verification and validation activity plays a fundamental role in improving software quality. Determining which the most effective techniques for carrying out this activity are has been an aspiration of experimental software engineering researchers for years. This paper reports a controlled experiment evaluating the effectiveness of two unit testing techniques (the functional testing technique known as equivalence partitioning (EP) and the control-flow structural testing technique known as branch testing (BT)). This experiment is a literal replication of Juristo et al. (2013). Both experiments serve the purpose of determining whether the effectiveness of BT and EP varies depending on whether or not the faults are visible for the technique (InScope or OutScope, respectively). We have used the materials, design and procedures of the original experiment, but in order to adapt the experiment to the context we have: (1) reduced the number of studied techniques from 3 to 2; (2) assigned subjects to experimental groups by means of stratified randomization to balance the influence of programming experience; (3) localized the experimental materials and (4) adapted the training duration. We ran the replication at the Escuela Politecnica del Ejercito Sede Latacunga (ESPEL) as part of a software verification & validation course. The experimental subjects were 23 master's degree students. EP is more effective than BT at detecting InScope faults. The session/program and group variables are found to have significant effects. BT is more effective than EP at detecting OutScope faults. The session/program and group variables have no effect in this case. The results of the replication and the original experiment are similar with respect to testing techniques. There are some inconsistencies with respect to the group factor. They can be explained by small sample effects. The results for the session/program factor are inconsistent for InScope faults. We believe that these differences are due to a combination of the fatigue effect and a technique x program interaction. Although we were able to reproduce the main effects, the changes to the design of the original experiment make it impossible to identify the causes of the discrepancies for sure. We believe that further replications closely resembling the original experiment should be conducted to improve our understanding of the phenomena under study.

AN OCL-BASED APPROACH TO DERIVE CONSTRAINT TEST CASES FOR DATABASE APPLICATIONS

The development of database applications in most CASE tools has been insufficient because most of these tools do not provide the software necessary to validate these applications. Validation means ensuring whether a given application fulfils the user requirements. We suggest validation of database applications by using the functional testing technique, which is a fundamental black-box testing technique for checking the software without being concerned about its implementation and structure. Our main contribution to this work is in providing a MDA approach for deriving testing software from the OCL specification of the integrity constraints. This testing software is used to validate the database applications, which are used to enforce these constraints. The generated testing software includes three components: validation queries, test cases and initial data inserted before the testing process. Our approach is implemented as an add-in tool in Rational Rose called OCL2TestSW.

Bridging Critical Nerve Defects through an Acellular Homograft Seeded with Autologous Schwann Cells Obtained from a Regeneration Neuroma of the Proximal Stump

Over the last decade, several models have investigated the usefulness of different biologic and/or synthetic matrices as alternatives to conventional nerve grafts. Still, axonal regeneration did not occur over longer (> 3 cm) distances. One problem may be that a growth-promoting environment not only includes physical cues but also a rich spectrum of different growth factors only provided by reactive Schwann cells. In the current study, we investigated whether a hybrid graft consisting of first-generation autologous Schwann cells seeded onto an acellular auto- or homograft can aid regeneration across a critical nerve defect in a rat model. In this paradigm, Schwann cells were not expanded in vitro but harvested from the proximal stump neuroma at the time of reconstruction and seeded into either an acellular homo- or autograft. Regeneration was then quantitated with functional muscle testing, regular histology, histomorphometry, and retrograde tracing techniques 12 weeks after reconstruction. Results showed successful regeneration over the entire distance regardless of whether Schwann cells were transplanted onto auto- or homologous acellular matrix. Schwann cells did populate both grafts; however, only sensory axons persisted through the entire distance. The functional outcome was dismal with no motor and poor sensory recovery. Control group C with homologous matrix only without Schwann cells showed no signs of directed axonal regeneration. Control group D with autologous reverse graft showed excellent recovery, as was expected. The present experiment sought to create a hybrid graft where the proximal stump neuroma is used as a biological resource for autologous Schwann cells that are seeded unto an acellular matrix, thus providing both physical and chemical support to regenerating axons. The results are encouraging in that successful regeneration was observed over the entire distance; however, only sensory axons had enough regenerative potential to also make end-organ contact. For motor axons, further refinements in conduit preparation have to be done.

Assessing and improving state-based class testing: a series of experiments

This work describes an empirical investigation of the cost effectiveness of well-known state-based testing techniques for classes or clusters of classes that exhibit a state-dependent behavior. This is practically relevant as many object-oriented methodologies recommend modeling such components with statecharts which can then be used as a basis for testing. Our results, based on a series of three experiments, show that in most cases state-based techniques are not likely to be sufficient by themselves to catch most of the faults present in the code. Though useful, they need to be complemented with black-box, functional testing. We focus here on a particular technique, Category Partition, as this is the most commonly used and referenced black-box, functional testing technique. Two different oracle strategies have been applied for checking the success of test cases. One is a very precise oracle checking the concrete state of objects whereas the other one is based on the notion of state invariant (abstract states). Results show that there is a significant difference between them, both in terms of fault detection and cost. This is therefore an important choice to make that should be driven by the characteristics of the component to be tested, such as its criticality, complexity, and test budget.

Testing mixed-signal cores: a practical oscillation-based test in an analog macrocell

A formal set of design decisions can aid in using oscillation-based test (OBT) for analog subsystems in SoCs. The goal is to offer designers testing options that do not have significant area overhead, performance degradation, or test time. This work shows that OBT is a potential candidate for IP providers to use in combination with functional test techniques. We have shown how to modify the basic concept of OBT to come up with a practical method. Using our approach, designers can use OBT to pave the way for future developments in SoC testing, and it is simple to extend this idea to BIST.

Bridging Faults in Pipelined Circuits

This paper analyzes the detectability of resistive bridging faults in CMOS (micro)-pipelined circuits. Logic and electrical level detection conditions are provided for functional and Iddq testing techniques. The kind of operations and the sensitivity to dynamic fault effects of pipelined circuits make such conditions more complex than in the combinational case. In particular, it is shown that the kind of used latches has a relevant impact on fault coverage, and should be carefully accounted in test generation and fault simulation. Finally, guidelines are drawn for the extension of combinational test generation and fault simulation algorithms to the considered case.

Black Box Testing: Techniques for Functional Testing of Software and Systems

Graphs and Relations. Control-Flow Testing. Loop Testing. Data-Flow Testing. Transaction-Flow Testing. Domain Testing. Syntax Testing. Finite-State Testing. Tools and Automation. Appendix. Cited References and Bibliography. Index.

Book Review: Black Box Testing: Techniques for Functional Testing of Software and Systems

Book Review: Black Box Testing: Techniques for Functional Testing of Software and Systems

Quiescent current sensor circuits in digital VLSI CMOS testing

Many integrated circuit processing defects may cause changes in the value of the quiescent power supply current. Not all of these changes are detectable using classical functional testing techniques. Testing techniques based on the quiescent power supply current inspection have been reported to be efficient in the detection of a wide set of well known physical defects (including bridges and stuck-on). Two quiescent current sensor circuits are proposed and discussed. These circuits are oriented to different testing applications, as the external functional ATE environment, and the built-in self-testing (BIST) design for both on-line and off-line strategies.