Fumane Cave Research Articles

Unravelling technological behaviors through core reduction intensity. The case of the early Protoaurignacian assemblage from Fumane Cave

This paper investigates core reduction intensity in the early Protoaurignacian lithic assemblage from Fumane Cave in northeastern Italy. Reduction intensity serves as a key tool to characterize blank selection strategies, raw material management, and the variability of knapping strategies throughout the reduction sequence by reconstructing the operatory field of core assemblages. Finally, it also aids in addressing the relationship between blades and bladelets, providing valuable insights into the behavioral and chrono-cultural significance of laminar productions within the Aurignacian technocomplex. To achieve these research goals, experimental work employing 3D scanning technology was conducted. This facilitated the comparison of different methods and variables for measuring reduction intensity, including the percentage of non-cortical surface, the Scar Density Index (SDI), and a novel adaptation of the Volumetric Reconstruction Method (VRM). Results demonstrate the effectiveness and potential of adapting the VRM for the study of reduction intensity in Upper Paleolithic laminar cores, and the provided R scripts and datasets will enable this method to be applied to other contexts with minimal need for modification to the workflow. Analysis of reduction intensity measures applied to the Protoaurignacian assemblage from Fumane Cave reveals slight variations based on factors such as the abundance and proximity of selected raw materials for blank production. Notably, the most prevalent raw material variety, the Maiolica, yields a higher number of less reduced cores, while reduction levels across all cores discarded at the site remain relatively high. The observed variability in the operatory field and the interrelation between blade and bladelet productions underscore the complexity and flexibility of Protoaurignacian behavior. This inherent complexity challenges any definitive separation between the operatory fields of blade and bladelet productions. These findings are particularly important to emphasize the importance of considering reduction intensity when examining technological variability and human behavior in Aurignacian studies. The proposed adaptation of the VRM and the effective combination with other measures of reduction, promises to allow future research to incorporate reduction intensity as a vital temporal component within studies on stone tool production. This integration offers a pathway to enhancing our understanding of the adaptive behaviors exhibited by Homo sapiens across diverse ecological settings and provides a clearer framework for better framing the development of the Upper Paleolithic.

Middle and Upper Paleolithic occupations of Fumane Cave (Italy): a geoarchaeological investigation of the anthropogenic features.

Here we present the results of a microcontextual analysis of purported combustion features recovered from Middle and Upper Paleolithic occupations at the cave site of Fumane, Italy. Our analyses, which integrate micromorphology with organic petrology, show that only a few of the features represent primary, intact hearths; some of them show evidence for various phases of anthropogenic reworking, either through trampling or sweeping and dumping. Several of the features are multi-layered and reflect a complex formation history of various activities related to combustion and site maintenance. Many appear to be the remnants of occupation horizons only partially preserved and peripherally related to combustion. Within several of the intact hearths from the Mousterian, we were able to identify variable fuel sources in different features, implying a degree of flexibility in the fuel-selection strategies of the Neanderthal occupants of Fumane. In this study we design a classification system of the anthropogenic features and also conduct a spatial analysis, through which we can infer diachronic patterns in the frequency and intensity of site occupation and the spatial distribution of activities. We note a decrease in frequency of combustion features throughout the Mousterian which continues into the Uluzzian. The features associated with the Protoaurignacian occupation, in contrast with those from the Mousterian, are multi-layered and well-defined. We argue that these trends, which correspond with other trends in artefact frequency, imply changes in the settlement dynamics of the site during the transition from the last Neanderthal occupation of the cave to the arrival of modern humans.

Quina on the edge. Insights from a Middle Palaeolithic lithic assemblage of Grotta di Fumane, Italy

Neanderthal behavior is a widely explored topic in Western Eurasia and is commonly driven by reference studies on the lithic industries. Amongst the large variability expressed by this class of cultural materials, the Mousterian Quina techno-complex is one of the most intriguing and could represent an ideal case of study especially in regions lacking data. To contribute to shed light to the Quina in central southern Europe, this paper presents the results of a study carried out on the lithic assemblage found at Fumane Cave, Italy, in sub-units BR4 and BR5 chronologically framed in a cold phase of the Upper Pleistocene around 60 ka. The assemblage is almost exclusively composed of cortical and uncortical large scrapers, a few flakes and cores. The flake-making focused either on large flakes with thin transverse edge, or short and thick flakes. Almost all the flakes have a backing opposed to the retouched edge, derived from the lateralized and alternated reduction of orthogonal and secant surfaces, identified in few cores. Scrapers present three or more orders of stepped-scaled (Quina-type) retouch, shaping simple, double, convergent, lateral-transverse (déjeté), transverse or bifacial types. Morpho-tecnical features of some retouched edges reveal that by means of this type of retouch Neanderthals were able to obtain distinct morphologies also along the same edge of the scraper. These edges processed an omogeneous category of materials (from resistant to very resistant) through a limited range of activities. Overall, this assemblage shares many similarities with the Quina reduction methods and techno-functional lay-outs identified in western european Middle Palaeolithic contexts and provides opportunities to compare evidence at the large European scale.

Subsistence of early anatomically modern humans in Europe as evidenced in the Protoaurignacian occupations of Fumane Cave, Italy

Documenting the subsistence strategies developed by early modern humans is relevant for understanding the success of their dispersal throughout Eurasia. Today, we know that there was not a single colonization event and that the process was progressive while coping with the MIS3 abrupt climatic oscillations. Modern humans expanded into the continent by adapting to different topographic situations and by exploiting resources in diverse ecological niches. The northern part of Italy is one of the first European regions where early modern humans are documented. Here, we present the subsistence regimen adopted by the Protoaurignacian groups in two different levels in Fumane Cave based on archaeozoological data. New radiocarbon dates confirm an overlap between Uluzzian and Protoaurignacian occupations, around 42 and 41,000 cal BP, and reveal that modern humans occupied the cave from GI10 to GS9, the last level coinciding with the Heinrich Event 4. The data indicate seasonal site occupations during late spring/summer and that prey exploitation was focused mostly on ibex and chamois, killed in nearby areas. The whole faunal assemblage suggests the presence of early modern humans in a cold environment with mostly open landscapes and patchy woodlands. The estimation of net primary productivity (NPP) in Fumane, compared with other contemporaneous Italian sites, reflects how the NPP fluctuations in the Prealpine area, where Fumane is located, affected the biotic resources in contrast to known Mediterranean sites. From a pan-European perspective, the spatiotemporal fluctuation of the NPP versus the subsistence strategies adopted by Protoaurignacian groups in the continent supports rapid Homo sapiens dispersal and resilience in a mosaic of environments that were affected by significant climate changes.

The contribution of integrated 3D model analysis to Protoaurignacian stone tool design.

Protoaurignacian foragers relied heavily on the production and use of bladelets. Techno-typological studies of these implements have provided insights into crucial aspects of cultural variability. However, new technologies have seldom been used to quantify patterns of stone tool design. Taking advantage of a new scanning protocol and open-source software, we conduct the first 3D analysis of a Protoaurignacian assemblage, focusing on the selection and modification of blades and bladelets. We study a large dataset of complete blanks and retouched tools from the early Protoaurignacian assemblage at Fumane Cave in northeastern Italy. Our main goal is to validate and refine previous techno-typological considerations employing a 3D geometric morphometrics approach complemented by 2D analysis of cross-section outlines and computation of retouch angle. The encouraging results show the merits of the proposed integrated approach and confirm that bladelets were the main focus of stone knapping at the site. Among modified bladelets, various retouching techniques were applied to achieve specific shape objectives. We suggest that the variability observed among retouched bladelets relates to the design of multi-part artifacts that need to be further explored via renewed experimental and functional studies.

Bringing shape into focus: Assessing differences between blades and bladelets and their technological significance in 3D form

Laminar technologies were adopted by Paleolithic foragers to produce a variable range of stone implements. Archaeologists have reconstructed the different reduction procedures involved in the production of laminar stone tools, often underlying a separation between the bigger blanks (i.e., blades) and smaller bladelets. However, these two blank types are in most cases poorly defined, as their classification typically relies on arbitrary size thresholds that do not consider blank shape, which is a fundamental component of tool production and function. In this study, we investigate whether traditional classifications of blades and bladelets are morphologically and technologically meaningful. For this purpose, we employ a three-dimensional geometric morphometric approach on a large sample of complete blanks retrieved from one of the earliest laminar industries assigned to modern humans in southern Europe: the Protoaurignacian from Fumane Cave. We rely on a cutting-edge protocol for acquiring virtual 3D meshes of stone tools using micro-computed tomography. This novel approach allows us to scan large quantities of small lithics in a short period of time and without the typical technical problems associated with scanning small objects. After calculating the principal components of shape variation, we explore differences and similarities across the dataset using linear discriminant analysis and analysis of variance. Our multivariate study highlights distinct morphological tendencies across blades and bladelets that are however better framed when the technological organization of Protoaurignacian stone knapping is taken into consideration. Overall, our results demonstrate that virtual analysis of stone tool shape can help elucidate aspects of lithic technology and its implications for past human behavior.

A taste for the unusual. Green, flat pebbles used by late Neanderthals

Neanderthals collected unusual, sometimes colorful mineral materials from different sources. Several green serpentinite smooth pebbles with a flat shape and use modifications were unearthed at Fumane Cave in northern Italy. This study explores cognitive and functional criteria that influenced the selection and use of unique pebbles based on their regional geology, morphology, petrology, use wear, and residues. Besides the attraction for green materials, there is no evidence for the use of soft green and flat pebbles, like those from Fumane Cave, during the Middle Palaeolithic. Moreover, these materials were collected by Neanderthals only from ca. 44 ka cal BP, despite the large availability of green serpentine pebbles in the alluvial beds near the cave. Ultimately, we provide new data to understand the role of aesthetic and technological factors in shaping the human behavioral range in the Middle Paleolithic.

Strontium isotope evidence for Neanderthal and modern human mobility at the upper and middle palaeolithic site of Fumane Cave (Italy)

To investigate the mobility patterns of Neanderthals and modern humans in Europe during the Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition period, we applied strontium isotope analysis to Neanderthal (n = 3) and modern human (n = 2) teeth recovered from the site of Fumane Cave in the Monti Lessini region of Northern Italy. We also measured a large number of environmental samples from the region, to establish a strontium ‘baseline’, and also micromammals (vole teeth) from the levels associated with the hominin teeth. We found that the modern humans and Neanderthals had similar strontium isotope values, and these values match the local baseline values we obtained for the site and the surrounding region. We conclude that both groups were utilizing the local mountainous region where Fumane Cave is situated, and likely the nearby Lessini highlands and Adige plains, and therefore the strontium evidence does not show differening mobility patterns between Neanderthals and modern humans at the Fumane site.

Scraping hide in the early Upper Paleolithic: Insights into the life and function of the Protoaurignacian endscrapers at Fumane Cave

Endscrapers are specialized tools that are usually recovered in great quantities in every Upper Paleolithic site in Europe. Although they make their first ephemeral appearance in the Middle–late Middle Paleolithic transitional technocomplexes, endscrapers commonly appear in toolkits from initial and early Upper Paleolithic traditions onwards. Nevertheless, endscrapers and, in general, domestic tools have attracted relatively little attention in debates revolving around the significance of technological change, tool function, and tool specialization after the end of the Middle Paleolithic. With the aim to overcome this paucity of information, here, we present the results of a techno-functional study performed on the large endscraper assemblage recovered from the early and late Protoaurignacian layers at Fumane Cave in northeastern Italy. We analyzed these artifacts using technological, morpho-metrical, typological, and functional approaches. Despite the large morphological variability, use-wear traces reveal functional consistency and high levels of specialization for these tools. Almost all the use-wear traces we recorded developed from hide working with transverse motion. Moreover, we find no evidence that endscrapers were involved in the production of bone and antler tools during the late Protoaurignacian. Macroscopic and microscopic wear on the lateral edges of tools point to a considerable number of hafted endscrapers, which implies systematic time investment and planning depth. Comparison with the few endscrapers from transitional industries that have been analyzed highlights marked differences in the production, morphology, and use of these tools and reinforces our view of the Aurignacian as a complex not directly related with preceding European traditions.

Breaking through the Aquitaine frame: A re-evaluation on the significance of regional variants during the Aurignacian as seen from a key record in southern Europe

The cultural dynamics that led to the appearance of the Aurignacian have intrigued archaeologists since the start of Paleolithic research. However, cultural reconstructions have often focused on a restricted region of Europe, namely the northern Aquitaine Basin. The Mediterranean Basin, though, is also a region worthy of consideration when testing if the Protoaurignacian was followed by the Early Aurignacian adaptive system. Fumane Cave is a pivotal site for tackling this issue because it contains evidence of repeated human occupations during the time span of the European Aurignacian. Here we investigate the diachronic variability of the lithic assemblages from five cultural units at Fumane Cave using a combination of reduction sequence and attribute analyses. This paper also reassesses the presence and stratigraphic reliability of the organic artifacts recovered at Fumane Cave. Our results show that the features of the Protoaurignacian techno-typology are present throughout the stratigraphic sequence, and by extension, to the onset of Heinrich Event 4. Additionally, the appearance of split-based points in the youngest phase is evidence of extensive networks that allowed this technological innovation to spread across different Aurignacian regions.

The use of bone retouchers in a Mousterian context of Discoid lithic technology

Bone retouchers are an important behavioural marker in the definition of several Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic cultural complexes. However, their relationship with the assemblages of knapped stone artefacts is still to be investigated particularly in specific but not uncommon lithic contexts of the Middle Palaeolithic in Europe. This paper offers insights to evaluate the use of bone retouchers in a context of Discoid lithic technology, a significant cultural expression largely spread in many regions during MIS3. The study case is the lithic and osseous assemblage of unit A9 at Fumane Cave, in north-eastern Italy. A detailed analysis of the bone retouchers is presented for the first time; their technological features are then correlated with the characteristic of the retouch observed on the lithic tools recovered in the same unit. The study contributes to complete a picture of Neanderthal economic behaviour.

Relative size variations in two vole species: A climatic proxy for the identification of humid-arid pulses during Late Pleistocene in Southwestern Europe?

In this study, we analysed the relative size variations of the first lower molar of the common vole Microtus arvalis and the field vole Microtus agrestis from three Late Pleistocene sites with long sequences: Fumane Cave (north-eastern Italy), Portalón and Arbreda Cave (northern and north-eastern Iberian Peninsula). The relative size variations of the two species have been quantified applying the Lagr/Larv index. We tried to relate the changes in the index values to the climatic fluctuations that characterize Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 and 2. The obtained results are compared with previous studies of palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions to investigate the efficacy of the Lagr/Larv index as proxy for climatic oscillations through MIS 3-2. The data have also been compared with other available data from Late Pleistocene sites of Spain, Italy, and Hungary, to analyse the responses of the two species to the climatic oscillations in different geographic and climatic areas. Our study showed that the Lagr/Larv index is a potential tool to identify climatic oscillations and changes between humid/dry conditions in Southwestern Europe.

Innovative Neanderthals: Results from an integrated analytical approach applied to backed stone tools

The production of prepared backed artifacts during the Paleolithic is recognized as an important step in the design of stone tools for manual activities and the development of human tool ergonomics. Backed artifacts are generally identified as proxies of so-called “modern” behavior, partly because they tend to be associated with systematic hafting, but mostly because they are widespread within Middle Stone Age (MSA) or Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) assemblages attributed to anatomically modern humans. However, in Europe these tools were first manufactured by Neanderthal groups associated with the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MAT) techno-complex and Discoid and Levallois technologies, using a range of flake blanks. Investigating the reasons for this behavioral leap forward can help to unravel the development and diffusion of various aspects defining the behavioral complexity of Paleolithic humans. In this paper we present a detailed analysis of one of the oldest and richest collections of prepared backed items preserved in Europe. We study several dozens of what – in a broad sense – are considered backed artifacts, with both natural and predetermined knapped backs, recovered from unit A9 at Fumane Cave, which is dated to at least 47.6 cal ky, and is characterized by discoid technology. Our methodology integrates results obtained from technological, techno-functional and use-wear analyses, further supported by experimental data. Two distinctive types of anthropogenic modifications have been identified, both aimed at creating a back or at modifying and accommodating an already existing back. By cross-checking our results with use-wear data, we show that some of these modifications were aimed at adjusting the shapes of the tools (knives and/or scrapers) for manual handling, although traces consistent with hafting have been recognized on a few specimens. Contextual information allows us to infer that these adjustments involved mainly tools used in precision activities, whose design and production implies varying levels of expertise and technical skills. Although still not systematic or standardized, the kinds of complex tool-making implied by backing can be considered as typical feature in the technological repertoires of late Neanderthals.

Combining ZooMS and zooarchaeology to study Late Pleistocene hominin behaviour at Fumane (Italy)

Collagen type I fingerprinting (ZooMS) has recently been used to provide either palaeoenvironmental data or to identify additional hominin specimens in Pleistocene contexts, where faunal assemblages are normally highly fragmented. However, its potential to elucidate hominin subsistence behaviour has been unexplored. Here, ZooMS and zooarchaeology have been employed in a complementary approach to investigate bone assemblages from Final Mousterian and Uluzzian contexts at Fumane cave (Italy). Both approaches produced analogous species composition, but differ significantly in species abundance, particularly highlighted by a six fold-increase in the quantity of Bos/Bison remains in the molecularly identified component. Traditional zooarchaeological methods would therefore underestimate the proportion of Bos/Bison in these levels to a considerable extent. We suggest that this difference is potentially due to percussion-based carcass fragmentation of large Bos/Bison bone diaphyses. Finally, our data demonstrates high variability in species assignment to body size classes based on bone cortical thickness and fragment size. Thus, combining biomolecular and traditional zooarchaeological methods allows us to refine our understanding of bone assemblage composition associated with hominin occupation at Fumane.

Deep in a Paleolithic archive: Integrated geophysical investigations and laser-scanner reconstruction at Fumane Cave, Italy

In this paper we used an integrated geomatics and geophysical investigation to gain insight about the Upper Pleistocene Cave deposit of Grotta di Fumane, located near to Verona city, Italy. Geophysical techniques are seldom considered for investigation of Paleolithic sites, mostly because as is typical in such a context, the physical properties of archaeological remains do not possess a clear contrast, with respect to the background and because of their tiny size, are difficult to detect As such, the main goals of this combined survey is to reconstruct the volume of the Paleolithic deposit, in terms of visible geometry, sediments distribution and thickness, and map the morphology of the inaccessible karst bedrock that still await to be excavated. These are achieved by using laser scanning and photogrammetry techniques, to create a three-dimensional digital model of the visible portion and using Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) to map the resistivity distribution in the subsurface. Additionally, single station passive seismic measurements were used to provide an indirect confirmation of the sediments thickness by inverting experimental spectral ratio of microtremors. Geophysical results delivered valuable quantitative information about sediments texture spatial distribution highlighting areas of major archaeological interest. Such information guided the 2014–2017 excavations and continuo providing support for long-term planning of future interventions. Finally, the integrated methodology used in this specific context will lead the way for the use of latest technologies to setup a new prospective for enhanced online visualization and virtual reality for the benefits of both cultural and scientific outreach.

Environmental and climatic context of the hominin occurrence in northeastern Italy from the late Middle to Late Pleistocene inferred from small-mammal assemblages

The environmental and climatic evolution of the late Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene of the northeastern Italy is determined for Marine Isotope Stage 7 (MIS 7) to MIS 3 on the basis of a study of the small-mammal (insectivore, bat and rodent) assemblages. This paper provides a synthesis of three previously published and one unpublished sets of environmental and climatic data from the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic sites of Grotta Maggiore di San Bernardino, Grotta minore di San Bernardino, De Nadale cave and Fumane cave, all of which are located in northeastern Italy. Using the habitat weighting method and the bioclimatic model to reconstruct the environment, temperature and rainfall, the results show great variability in the landscape and climate of the area. However, the various layers from the studied sites in which the human presence is more intense coincide with landscapes dominated by woodland formations in mild climatic conditions. A comparison of our results with those from other sites with studies of small mammals in Greece, Italy, southern France and the Iberian Peninsula reveals the same pattern, showing that the hominins that inhabited the western Mediterranean region in the late Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene were closely related to forested areas.

Large bovids on the Neanderthal menu: Exploitation of Bison priscus and Bos primigenius in northeastern Italy

In northern Italy, Fumane Cave (Lessini Mountains -Verona), San Bernardino Cave, and De Nadale Cave (Berici Hills - Vicenza) provide data to interpret the exploitation dynamics of the Pleistocene's large bovids Bos primigenius and Bison priscus between 70 and 42 ky BP. Through the taphonomic study of bone assemblages, we have attempted to reconstruct the strategies, methods, and butchery practices in the exploitation of these game animals adopted by different cultural groups of Middle Palaeolithic hunters. Therefore, Neanderthal hunting behaviour has been examined using different proxies such as the choice of anatomical parts, selective transport of elements, prey selection, and age estimation. Results suggest bovines were an important subsistence resource in some cases, even if they were not the most exploited taxa in others, indicating differences and similarities depending on the context across the Italian peninsula. These results highlight additional aspects of Neanderthal landscape use and hunting strategies.

An integrated method for understanding the function of macro-lithic tools. Use wear, 3D and spatial analyses of an Early Upper Palaeolithic assemblage from North Eastern Italy.

The article presents an original analysis which combines use-wear, 3D modelling and spatial analyses to experimental archaeology in order to investigate Early Upper Palaeolithic flint-knapping gestures and techniques involving the use of macro-lithic tools. In particular, the methodological framework proposed in this paper was applied to the study of Protoaurignacian and Aurignacian macro-tools from Fumane Cave (Verona, Italy). Combining spatial analysis and use wear investigation, both at low and high magnifications, permitted the identification and detailed description of the use-related traces affecting both the hammerstones and retouchers which, at Fumane Cave, were used at different stages during flint tool production. Several experimental activities were performed including core reduction, maintenance, and blank production together with different types of edge retouching. From a methodological perspective, the protocol of analysis permitted to codify specific traces and to produce quantitative data related to their geometry and distribution over the tool’s surface, according to the activities and gestures performed. The results obtained allowed a careful investigation of the function and the gestures associated to the use of the macro-lithic tools coming from the Protoaurignacian and Aurignacian levels of Fumane Cave while providing a methodological tool for interpreting different archaeological samples.

Heat Treatment of Mineral Pigment During the Upper Palaeolithic in North‐East Italy

The use of red ochre for utilitarian, symbolic and artistic purposes is widely documented in prehistoric contexts. The absence of adequate red‐coloured raw materials influenced the development of technological activities aimed at modifying the original physiochemical properties of yellow ochre. The heat treatment of goethite to obtain hematite was investigated in the western sector of the Lessini Mountains in north‐east Italy, where red ochre was found in the (Proto)Aurignacian levels at Fumane cave and in the Late Epigravettian sequence at Tagliente rockshelter. The combination of X‐ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) proved that heat treatment was a common practice in the studied archaeological sites due to the scarce availability of suitable hematite‐based material in the region.

Protoaurignacian Core Reduction Procedures: Blade and Bladelet Technologies at Fumane Cave

ABSTRACTThe Protoaurignacian is one of the European techno-complexes that marks the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. During this time bladelet implements, frequently intended to be hafted in composite tools, become the primary goal of lithic production. The growing number of technological investigations carried out on several assemblages has revealed that, in most cases, bladelets are not the result of the reduction of blade cores. However, the detailed procedures involved in the production of blades and bladelets have rarely been reconstructed. Here we report on diacritic investigations of early stage and exhausted cores from the Protoaurignacian layers of Fumane Cave in northeastern Italy. We show that core reduction is influenced by two distinct operational concepts that relate to the manufacture of different predetermined products. The first is characterized by a linear and consecutive knapping progression that aims to obtain blades and, to a minor extent, bladelets with sub-parallel edges. The second is characterized instead by an alternated knapping progression that is exclusively used to produce slender bladelets with a convergent shape. We also show that carinated cores do not significantly differ, technologically, from semi-circumferential bladelet cores. We conclude by suggesting that there existed strong technological traditions shared between hunter–gatherers across the geographical extent of the Protoaurignacian.