Full-time Equivalent Student Research Articles

Determinants of private giving at ranked U.S. universities 2011-2020: A panel data quantile regression analysis

The purpose of this research is to conduct an analysis to identify which variables contribute to student giving to universities in the United States. For this study, data were collected from fifty U.S. universities, most of them in quantile 1 of The Times Higher Education World University Ranking (THE Ranking) list. Also, information from the universities' financial statements and annual reports for the period 2011 to 2020 and information from the National Association of College and University Business Officers (NACUBO). The data were arranged in a panel data structure with a repeated structure for each cross-section. This structure is composed of fifty universities and ten years, as a time period, giving a total of 500 observations. When we perform the corresponding analysis, we can find that the variables that contribute to donations depend on the growth of State GDP, the type of university, university size, state contributions by Full Time Equivalent Students (FTE), the ranking score, tax rebates due to donations. Empirical evidence has also been found in which public universities receive less private giving than private universities. For this research we performed a panel data quantile regression analysis, to more accurately capture the variability of the data because top-ranked universities receive the most donations.

INFORMAL CAREGIVING EXPERIENCES: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AN AGE-FRIENDLY UNIVERSITY

Abstract The growing Age-Friendly University (AFU) global network has been helping its members assess their institutions and identify action items for increasing age-friendliness. This research investigates one of the issues identified through previous assessment of an AFU as a weakness and area of opportunity, which is the lack of resources and information for campus community members who identify as informal or unpaid family caregivers. Data from N = 70 campus members (26% faculty, 18% staff, 56% students; 84% female, 16% male) were collected in early 2023 through a campus-wide online survey and analyzed by a team of researchers using quantitative analysis for responses to Likert-type items and thematic analysis for open-ended responses. Issues around physical demands, time demands, financial stress, and social and emotional health while caregiving were assessed. Results indicated that respondents are experiencing different types of stress and need additional support and resources as caregivers, particularly related to respite care, mental health services, financial support, and assistance with physical tasks such as housework and transportation. The findings from this research will be used to develop and share resources around caregiving broadly across the university campus, and to ensure that resources are culturally inclusive, particularly as nearly 25% of the enrollment of undergraduate full-time equivalent students is composed of students from a Hispanic/Latinx background. Findings will also be used to establish community partnerships to harness resources from outside the university, and ultimately to help support the campus community moving forward and to achieve a piece of the university’s AFU vision.

Lincoln Connected

Online education is no longer a growing trend and is now an accepted delivery model with more and more institutions offering academic programs of study online. Presented as a single-case study, this paper outlines one Aotearoa New Zealand institution’s decision to begin offering an online learning program, the Lincoln Connected Initiative. The initiative aimed to increase the institution’s enrolment by developing online learning content, implementing new administrative programs, enhancing technological systems and developing support resources for both staff and students. From this work, there were four main lessons learned: implementation of a strong administrative model, early project and change management, adequate staff resourcing and development, and continuous content development. Since its implementation, this initiative has successfully launched numerous academic programs, updated its systems and development tools, implemented support resources for students and staff and aims to reach its goal of achieving 15% of its full-time equivalent students being enrolled in an online program by 2024.

Liaison librarian programs as described on U.S. college and university library websites

Case studies and surveys describing roles of liaison librarians and structure of liaison librarian programs have generally focused on libraries at large, research-oriented universities. This study was conducted to better understand the role of liaison librarians and the structure of liaison programs across more types of college and university libraries. Listings of liaison librarians on library websites at institutions with a wide range of enrollments were examined. Document analysis was used to observe how common it was for libraries to have such listings, how many liaison librarians were listed, what title was used for the position, what services were described, and if library employees not matched to university departments were also included in the list. Although there was substantial overlap in how institutions described their liaison librarian services, smaller and larger institutions had some noteworthy differences. Over 80 % of institutions with >5000 full-time equivalent (FTE) students had a liaison librarian listing on the library website, while less than half of smaller institutions had a listing. The largest institutions also tended to have more liaison librarians, frequently included subject specialization in liaison titles, and offered non-departmental services in their listings more often than smaller institutions.

How Noncredit Enrollments Distort Community College IPEDS Data: An Eight-State Study

A commonly used metric for measuring college costs, drawn from data in the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), is expenditure per full-time equivalent (FTE) student. This article discusses an error in this per FTE calculation when using IPEDS data, especially with regard to community colleges. The problem is that expenditures for noncredit courses are reported to IPEDS but enrollments are not. This exclusion inflates any per FTE student figure calculated from IPEDS, in particular expenditures and revenues. A 2021 IPEDS Technical Review Panel (TRP #62) acknowledged this problem and moved campus institutional research offices a step closer to reporting noncredit enrollment data (RTI International, 2021). This article is the first to provide some numbers on the magnitude of this problem. It covers eight states—California, Iowa, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. Data on noncredit community college enrollments were made available from system offices in all states. In addition, discussions were held at both the system level and the campus level to verify the data and assumptions. Figures provided by states were merged with existing IPEDS data at the campus and state levels, and then were adjusted to account for noncredit enrollments. The results provide evidence that calculations using IPEDS data alone overestimate the resources that community colleges have to spend on each student, although distortions vary greatly between states and among colleges in the same state. The results have important implications for research studies and college benchmarking.

Institutional Expenditures and Student Graduation and Retention

As the cost of higher education continues to rise faster than inflation and as the pressure from community colleges offering four-year degrees increases (See: https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2018/04/26/more-community-colleges-are-offering-bachelors-degrees), it is imperative that colleges and universities examine how they allocate finite dollars in ways that increase retention and graduation rates. This study examined correlations between certain expense categories as defined by the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and higher retention and six-year graduation rates of first-time, full-time students attending Council for Christian Colleges & Universities (CCCU) member institutions. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis suggest that the strongest correlations were dollars spent on instruction per full-time equivalent student being positively correlated to higher six-year graduation rates, and higher percentage of total spending used for research being positively correlated to higher retention rates.

A comparison of the academic outcome of chiropractic students on full-time and full-time equivalent chiropractic education routes.

To compare the academic equivalence of full-time (FT) and full-time equivalent (FTE) delivery routes for chiropractic training and to assess nontraditional education delivery as a viable method for training chiropractors. A retrospective analysis of student summative assessment data was undertaken on a total of 196 FT and FTE students studying for the master's in chiropractic degree at a UK chiropractic college between 2009 and graduating by 2017. The analysis consisted of within-group comparison and between-group comparisons using the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Mann-Whitney U test. The demographics of the 2 student groups varied in terms of gender and age distribution. The analysis of summative data indicated no differences between the 2 routes of delivery. There was also no difference in the distribution of final degree classification outcome between the 2 routes. While it is possible that demographic differences influence the outcomes in each training route, this preliminary study indicates that, based only on analysis of overall achievement, there is no difference in either FT or FTE programs in training chiropractors, allowing them to register with the UK regulatory body. It suggests that a nontraditional mode of delivery is an achievable route to qualification as a chiropractor, enabling a greater number of students to consider chiropractic as a career choice while managing other life commitments.

Inter-University Sustainability Benchmarking for Canadian Higher Education Institutions: Water, Energy, and Carbon Flows for Technical-Level Decision-Making

The education sector is one of the major contributors to the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Canada, i.e., 16% of total emissions among 11 sectors. Canadian higher education institutions (HEIs) consume around 60% of the total energy fed to the educational sector. Existing tools holistically cover a wide array of functions to assess the sustainability of HEIs. The infrastructure (engineered) systems are the pivotal units responsible for the majority of energy and water consumption and may have been built, retrofitted, or replaced at different times using different materials and technologies. Consequently, infrastructures have varying efficiency, designs, building envelopes, and environmental impacts. For technical-level decision making for improving the engineered systems, HEIs need to be benchmarked on the basis of their water, energy, and carbon flows. A methodology is developed for sustainability assessment of 34 Canadian HEIs that are classified into small, medium, and large sizes based on their number of full-time equivalent students (FTE). Energy, water consumption, number of students, and floor area is measured in different units and are, thus, normalized. The study revealed that the energy source was the primary factor affecting the sustainability performance of an institution. The analysis also revealed that small-sized institutions outperformed medium-to-large-sized institutions.

How Big Is Too Big: Should Certain Higher Educational Endowmentss Net Investment Income Be Subject to Tax?

Section 13701 of the 2017 Tax Reform Act created new Internal Revenue Code § 4968 that imposes a 1.4% excise tax on the net investment income of certain large private college and university endowments. The affected institutions must have at least 500 tuition-paying students during the preceding taxable year, provided more than 50% of its students are located in the United States, plus assets (other than assets used directly in carrying out the institution’s exempt purpose) with an aggregate fair market value at the end of the preceding taxable year equal to at least $500,000 per full-time or full-time equivalent student. Approximately twenty-seven to thirty-five colleges and universities are affected. This paper argues that the legislation as enacted is politically motivated and fatally flawed. The “assets per student” ratio that triggers the tax is both over and under-inclusive, and irrelevant and arbitrary as a guide to excessive endowment accumulation. The legislation serves to exempt multi-billion dollar endowments of many universities yet ensnare smaller colleges that may have more limited resources, but the endowment to student ration exceeds $500,000. The growing income inequality in American society is reflected in the inequality of access to elite schools with billion dollar endowments. While large endowment schools have increased financial aid, the percentage of students from lower income families has remained the same. A student whose parents come from the top one percent of income distribution is 77 times more likely to attend an Ivy League college than one from the bottom income quintile. Among “Ivy League Plus” colleges (the eight Ivy League colleges plus Chicago, Stanford, MIT and Duke), more students come from families in the top 1% of income distribution (14.5%) than the bottom half of the income distribution (13.5%). Recommended is that the investment income tax be triggered for all billion dollar endowment institutions when the endowment earns $75 million in net investment income ($150 million for public school billion dollar endowments). The endowment per student ratio should be jettisoned. Schools could offset the net income investment tax on a one dollar to one dollar basis by increasing financial assistance to the student body. If the school increases the admission of students from underrepresented constituencies, the tax offset would be two dollars for each dollar spent in expanding the number of such students.

Evaluating the Accuracy of Productivity Indicators in Performance Funding Models

This study illustrates a method for evaluating the accuracy of performance metrics and identifies potential institutional and student attributes that may increase the likelihood of classification errors. Longitudinal data were obtained from the Integrated Postsecondary Eduation Data System for public 4-year institutions ( N = 558) to evaluate various performance metrics based on graduation rates, total credentials conferred, and total credentials per 100 full-time equivalent students. A value-added measure defined as the difference between an institution’s actual and predicted graduation rate served as the reference standard. The results revealed that 18% to 56% of institutions were misclassified as effective or ineffective when using unadjusted performance metrics. Mean comparisons indicated that institutions misclassified as ineffective frequently had input disadvantages (e.g., low admissions selectivity). Some performance metrics may thus yield unacceptably high error rates in classifying institutions as effective or ineffective, which may hinder efforts to identify best practices and reward institutions that promote state and federal attainment goals.

A Quantitative Analysis of the Effects of Postsecondary Institution Conversions from Not-For-Profit to For-Profit

This study highlights the changes that have occurred at postsecondary institutions after conversion from not-for-profit to for-profit control. Using Delta Cost Project Data and a pre-post study design with a control group of not-for-profit institutions that did not convert, comparisons are drawn. The findings suggest that institutions that convert experience greater enrollment growth, a decline in fulltime employment levels per full time equivalent (FTE) student, no change in average expenses per FTE student, a decrease in total revenue, a decrease in Pell Grants received, a decrease in tuition and fees revenue, and a decline in average subsidy per student post conversion. These findings are critical to the creation of informed policy decisions regarding institutional conversions.

Pricing Nonmarketed Outputs with an Application to Community Colleges

We use the directional output distance function in cost space to recover absolute prices of nonmarket goods such that the ratio of prices equals the marginal rate of transformation of outputs in production. As such, the method is quite useful for valuing nonmarketed goods such as those produced by government entities such as the National Park Service, public schools and universities, and municipalities. We provide an empirical illustration of our method using fourteen Missouri community colleges that produced full-time equivalent students, certificates, associate’s degrees, and real spending on public service and auxiliary enterprises during the period 2005–2006 to 2011–2012.

To Dream the Impossible Dream: College Graduation in Four Years

The cost of higher education continues to climb, while calls for increased institutional accountability and the value of a “four-year degree” are ever present. This research sought to identify factors by which consumers might predict four-year graduation rates at institutions within the CCCU. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis of data from 80 CCCU institutions indicated that 48.6% of the variation in four-year graduation rates could be explained by the model, after adjusting for sample size. Five variables were identified as significantly contributing to the variation in four-year graduation rates: 1) institutional financial aid, 2) “real tuition cost” (tuition less institutional financial aid), 3) instructional expenditures per full-time equivalent student, (4) student-faculty ratio, and 5) average GPA of the incoming class. However, institutional aid and “real tuition cost” were the major contributors; once they were factored into the equation, student-faculty ratio and instructional expenditures became insignificant, although average GPA of the incoming class remained significant as each variable was added to the analysis. In light of the ever-rising cost of higher education, this study indicated that information is readily available to help families make informed college-choice decisions. By doing their homework, a family may increase the likelihood of selecting an institution in which their student achieves the seemingly impossible dream: achieving a “four-year” degree in four years.

FOR-PROFIT HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ASSESSMENT OF COSTS AND BENEFITS

This paper provides a summary and analysis of the economics of the two-year, for-profi t higher education sector. I highlight studies that have contributed to our understanding of this sector and assess its social costs and benefi ts. I generate a rough estimate of the annual per student cost to taxpayers of federal and state grant aid, appropriations, and contracts fl owing to these institutions, as well as the cost of defaults on federally-subsidized student loans. I also estimate the outof-pocket educational expenses and foregone earnings of for-profi t students. I fi nd that for-profi t, two-year colleges cost taxpayers roughly $7,600 per year for a full-time equivalent student. Students bear most of the cost of their education, in the form of foregone earnings, tuition, and loan interest amounting to $51,600 per year. I contrast these costs with similar estimates for public community colleges, including the direct subsidization of the sector by state and local taxpayers. I fi nd that community colleges cost taxpayers more than for-profi ts — about $11,400 per year — but students incur costs of only about $32,200 per year of attendance. Considering both public and private costs, community colleges are thus roughly $15,600 less expensive. For-profi t college attendance would result in net benefi ts for students if earnings gains exceed 8.5 percent per year of education, while students in community colleges require minimum earnings gains of 5.3 percent per year of education to reap positive net benefi ts.

Community‐Based Dental Education and Community Clinic Finances

To develop a long-term, sustainable partnership with dental schools, federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) need to assess the financial impact of dental students on their financial operations. Primary concerns are that students will not cover their marginal costs and will reduce the productivity of clinic dentists. This study uses data from Asian Health Services, an FQHC in Oakland, California, to examine revenues generated by senior dental students and by FQHC dentists when students are and are not present. The analysis of ten months of electronic record data showed that two full-time equivalent students generated $420,549 in gross revenues and reduced dentist output by only $29,000. While the results are from just one FQHC, they strongly suggest that students make a significant contribution to clinic productivity and finances.

Private giving versus state funding: Perspectives on funding of Maryland 4-year public institutions

This study examined the relationship between and among the changes in the level of institutional fundraising and changes in state funding at Maryland public 4-year institutions. As institutions have become more engaged in fundraising, the impact of private giving success on changes in state funding becomes more apparent in the context of increased fiscal constraint, and as a mechanism to help ensure institutional competitiveness. Anecdotal theory and attitudinal surveys indicated that public funding reductions were considered when private giving increased. Using 13 cases based on 10 years of data from 13 institutions, descriptive statistics, correlation and regression testing results were analyzed using data from several state and national databases. Private giving, state funding, wealth indicators (including the endowment expenditure ratio (EER) and the state pseudo endowment) and ranking indicators, comprised the types of variables tested. Several statistically significant correlations were found, including a moderate, positive correlation between Total Private Giving and State Funding per full-time equivalent (FTE) Student. Simple regression testing indicated a portion of State Funding per FTE Student could be explained by Total Private Giving. This research interpolated that virtually no change was predicted in State Funding per FTE Student per dollar Change in Total Private Giving. Other correlations included statistical significance between private giving variables and several ranking indicators. Many of these indicators were also correlated with state funding. The findings revealed no statistically significant evidence that private giving was used to supplant state funds. Hidden reductions in state funding increases may have occurred, although this research was unable to extract such findings from the analysis. There was an indication that state funding did not keep pace with inflation. On the basis of the findings, an operational model was developed to assist institutional advancement and government relations efforts to maximize funding. The model introduced the pseudo endowment, a fiscal resource variable enabling comparisons between public and private institutions and their assets supporting operations. Discussion of supplanting theory was also raised as an outcome of this model and the underlying research.

Private giving and state funding of Maryland's public institutions: New perspectives on support of historically black institutions

College leaders and policymakers benefit by understanding the relationship between increases in private giving, changes in state appropriations and how to position the institution to maximize both sources of revenue. Anecdotal and attitudinal studies suggested that fundraising success may affect state funding of higher education institutions. Recent quantitative research examining all Maryland 4-year public institutions indicated that total private giving was a partial predictor of state funding per full-time equivalent student, although there was no multiplier effect on private giving leveraging increased state operating funding. This research demonstrated a new method to examine the private and state support of Historically Black Institutions (HBIs) and Traditionally White Institutions (TWIs) and the supplanting of state funding, which is the focus of this article. My analysis of data from Maryland's four HBIs compared to TWIs was undertaken to compare fundraising activity and state operating funding support during the period FY1997 – FY2006. This research was inspired from an understanding of public choice theory, the correlation of endowment size and institutional quality rankings, and the cost of excellence study. I developed a quantitative study of Maryland 4-year public institutions over a 10-year period. My research analyzed the change in private giving in terms of the institutional endowment and treatment of state funding as the equivalent of spending from a pseudo endowment. Pseudo endowment is a ratio that simulates an unrestricted endowment necessary to support an equivalent spending level equal to state funding and will be explained in greater detail within the research design section of this article.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from U.S. Institutions of Higher Education

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission estimates from signatories of the American College and University Presidents’ Climate Commitment (ACUPCC) were compared across Carnegie institutional classifications. Average annual emissions from all institutional classifications are 52,434 metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent (MTCO2E), with emissions from purchased electricity, stationary combustion, and commuting accounting for approximately 88% of total emissions. Average annual emission intensity from all institutional classifications is 19.39 MTCO2E per 1000 gross square feet (GSF) and 7.67 MTCO2E per full-time equivalent (FTE) student. In 2005, U.S. institutions of higher education accounted for approximately 121 million MTCO2E, or nearly 2% of total annual U.S. GHG emissions. For reference, these emissions are comparable to approximately one-quarter of those from the state of California. Because ACUPCC signatories represent over 30% of U.S. higher education enrollment, their long-term commitments to carbon neutrality can result in a measurable reduction (∼0.6%) of total annual U.S. GHG emissions.

Do expenditures other than instructional expenditures affect graduation and persistence rates in American higher education?

During the last two decades, median instructional spending per full-time equivalent (FTE) student at American 4-year colleges and universities has grown at a slower rate than median spending per FTE student in a number of other expenditure categories, including academic support, student services and research. Our paper uses institutional level panel data and a variety of econometric approaches, including unconditional quantile regression methods, to analyze whether these non-instructional expenditure categories influence graduation and first-year persistence rates of undergraduate students. Our most important finding is that student service expenditures influence graduation and persistence rates and their marginal effects are higher for students at institutions with lower entrance test scores and higher Pell Grant expenditures per student. Put another way, their effects are largest at institutions that have lower current graduation and first-year persistence rates. Simulations suggest that reallocating some funding from instruction to student services may enhance persistence and graduation rates at those institutions whose rates are currently below the medians in the sample.

Research and Solutions: Effects of Climate and Institution Size on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Colleges and Universities in the United States

Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) associated with buildings may constitute as much as 40 percent of total emissions by the United States. Data on GHG emissions for 238 institutions, including doctorate-granting universities, master's institutions, and baccalaureate colleges, were acquired from the American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment (ACUPCC). A regression model that included gross building area, July mean temperature, and January mean low temperature was used to predict GHG emissions (R2 = 0.911). A similar model was developed for emissions as a function of full-time equivalent (FTE) students, but the fit was poorer (R2 = 0.693). The percentage of coal in the energy source for electric power generation was also a factor, with higher percentages resulting in higher emissions. Institutions with high percentages of coal as their electricity source also experienced low January temperatures, making it difficult to distinguish the effects of energy source from winter climate. For doct...