Full Reparation Research Articles

A Case Against Crippling Compensation in International Law of State Responsibility

AbstractThe obligation of States to provide full reparation for internationally wrongful acts, including by full compensation, is one of the bedrock principles of international law. The article challenges this principle for cases where compensation is crippling for the responsible State or its peoples, which can occur when State responsibility is implemented before international courts and tribunals. The International Law Commission's decision not to qualify full reparation for instances of crippling compensation in its influential Articles on State responsibility was an unpersuasive legal position to adopt in 2001, and its rationale has aged badly. However, the failure by States and other actors to challenge it in the following two decades signified its endorsement by the international legal process. Nevertheless, the case against the permissibility of crippling compensation in modern international law can still be made, both on a case‐by‐case basis and at the level of customary secondary rules of State responsibility.

Chorzów Factory – intellectual property and the continuity of international law in investor-state dispute settlement

One of the most important cases in the jurisprudence of international law – Chorzów Factory – has a hidden secret, so much so that, even when in plain sight, legal post-mortems of the case fail to mention this well-kept secret. Chorzów Factory was about intellectual property rights, specifically patents and trade secrets, and this narrative has never been fully addressed. When the developments in international investment law and arbitration are fully considered it is worth looking back at Chorzów Factory to associate it with new streams of contemporary investor-state disputes that include issues such as intellectual property rights. Because Chorzów Factory has established the full reparation standard for unlawful expropriation, the standard has enabled a continuity of international law and underscores its importance for contemporary investment arbitration. However, the intellectual property narrative of Chorzów Factory has been neglected, and, in this article, I want to develop the intellectual property narrative of Chorzów Factory and to demonstrate the nexus between fair compensation, intellectual property rights and the continuity of international law.

Reparation by Pecuniary Means of Direct Moral Damages Suffered by States as a Result of Internationally Wrongful Acts

Abstract Contemporary international law requires full reparation for all material and moral damages suffered by States as a result of internationally wrongful acts and provides that reparation can take the form of restitution, compensation or satisfaction. While it is admitted that material damages which are financially assessable can be repaired by restitution and/or compensation, satisfaction seems to be reserved to the reparation of moral damages. As to whether moral damages suffered by States can be repaired by pecuniary means, the answer seems to be controversial. Moral damages indirectly suffered by States as a result of internationally wrongful acts committed against their citizens are considered, both by the jurisprudence and the international literature, as reparable by monetary means, through the existence of the individual substratum. However, the reparability by pecuniary means of direct moral damages doing harm to States’ dignity, honour and prestige is problematical. This article argues for the reparability by payments of money of moral damages and discusses the nature of the monetary payment that may be done to States in order to remediate such damages.

La imprescriptibilidad del derecho a obtener reparación integral de las víctimas de Lesa Humanidad

La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos ha establecido un nuevo estándar convencional en reciente jurisprudencia: la imprescriptibilidad del derecho a reparación integral en los aspectos civiles del daño ocasionado por delitos de lesa humanidad, a las víctimas de delitos de lesa humanidad. Ello en consonancia con la evolución del derecho internacional de los derechos humanos.

O DANO EXISTENCIAL COMO UMA NOVA MODALIDADE DE DANO NÃO PATRIMONIAL: A NECESSIDADE DA AMPLIAÇÃO DO PRINCÍPIO DA FUNÇÃO SOCIAL DA RESPONSABILIDADE CIVIL E A BUSCA DA REPARAÇÃO INTEGRAL DO DANO À PESSOA

Visa-se, com este artigo, fornecer uma contribuição acadêmica, no sentido de mostrar um novo olhar sobre o dano à pessoa, que pode advirde uma lesão existencial, e, apesar de se iniciar no centro do sentir humano, prolonga-se em seu existir (dirigido a si próprio) e nas suas relaçõescoexistenciais (dirigida aos demais membros da sociedade). A partir do recorte epistemológico, derivado do movimento de Constitucionalizaçãodo Direito Civil e da repersonalização das relações, foi desenvolvido o estudo de um dano que, contempla não apenas à pessoa, mas, deforma ampla, os direitos democraticamente consolidados pela Constituição Federal, representados pelos princípios da sociabilidade,solidariedade e da dignidade da pessoa humana. Proteger o indivíduo é, sobretudo, permitir que cada um se desenvolva em sociedade, segundosuas perspectivas e potencialidades, por isso, a busca pela reparação integral do dano causado à pessoa humana e a proteção desta, contraqualquer tipo de dano, são objetivos precípuos do ordenamento jurídico, albergados sob a égide do princípio da dignidade da pessoa humana, aptos a justificarem a ampliação das modalidades de danos já existentes, abrangendo a pessoa no seu existir e coexistir em suas mais diversas formas de interação social. A problemática do presente artigo é apresentada em torno da análise quanto à viabilidade e à concretude da aplicabilidade do conceito jurídico do dano existencial ao ordenamento pátrio. Partindo-se da premissa que o dano existencial é externo, que se irradia e fere um interesse individual, sendo capaz de ocasionar a alteração permanente nas atividades hedonistas e na vida de relações da vítima ou seja, desta em relação às demais pessoas em sociedade e dessas pessoas, em relação àquele que sofreu o dano). Chega-se à conclusão de que as consequências do dano existencial vão além das ocasionadas pelo dano moral. Logo, o dano existencial não atinge tão somente aquela que foi vítima do mesmo, mas, de maneira direta, pessoas que estão em correlação existencial com a pessoa lesada. Não se trata de perda de uma chance ou de mero dano a um projeto de vida e sim da extinção, cerceamento ou impedimento da realização de uma atividade, lazer ou relacionamento, antes existentes. O dano existencial, uma vez ocasionado, por conseguinte, tem o condão de transformar a realidade uacional - temporal - espacial da pessoa que osofreu, de forma a tolher-lhe o que há de maisprecioso, a sua motivação existencial. A maior outalvez a mais importante característica dessanova modalidade de dano, neste artigo proposto,sob a denominação de dano existencial, é aampliação da função social do instituto daresponsabilidade civil.

DERECHO PROCESAL TRANSFORMADOR EN LA REPARACIÓN DE LAS NUEVAS VÍCTIMAS DEL CONFLICTO ARMADO EN COLOMBIA: DESAFÍOS PARA EL PROCESO DE RESPONSABILIDAD DEL ESTADO

The proceedings for establishing the responsibility of the State are not adapted for the reality of the victims. They do not guarantee effectively and within a reasonable period the fundamental right to a full reparation. In light of this statement, this paper enquires about the necessity of establishing a transformative procedural law through the use of new proceedings that may grant reparations to the victims of the Colombian armed conflict, even within the context of the Peace Agreements and the post-conflict, where the magnitude of the number of victims is relevant. This necessity could be satisfied by using case law and the special administrative proceeding for extending the State Council’s case law to third parties (an administrative procedure that was created for making the Public Administration issue the judges’ words to situations that have the same facts and legal issues).

“Oops, I Did It” or “It Wasn’t Me:” An Examination of Psychological Contract Breach Repair Tactics

This study investigated ways an organization might mitigate the negative effects of psychological contract breach. Drawing on the trust repair literature and organizational justice theory, we examined six general repair tactics (i.e., full penance, partial penance, denials, apologies, excuses, and combined apology/excuse) in terms of whether they improve trust and diminish the negative emotions following a breach. Data were obtained via two experimental studies employing 918 participants, including both college students and working adults. All of the repair tactics were effective at enhancing trust and easing negative emotions, except for denying that the breach occurred. Full penance (i.e., offering full reparation) was the most effective, with the next best option depending upon what outcome was being addressed and the population studied. The type of contract and magnitude of breach did not play a significant role in the effectiveness of repair tactics. The results of this study show that companies can do something to “fix” breaches. We extend the trust repair research to the context of breach and show that the effectiveness of repair tactics differs across outcomes. Practically, based upon our results, we advise companies to use these repair tactics (except denial) when breaches occur. This study is the first to empirically examine how companies might address breaches to avoid their negative consequences. It is also among only a few studies on trust repair to include emotions, initial trust, more than three repair tactics, and a sample of working adults.

Presupuestos políticos y jurídicos para la reparación integral de las víctimas de desplazamiento forzado en Colombia a causa del conflicto armado

<p>En el presente artículo se abordarán aquellos presupuestos de orden político y jurídico para la reparación integral de las víctimas en Colombia, partiendo del contexto de justicia transnacional por el cual atraviesa nuestro país. Desde la década de 1960, el conflicto armado en Colombia se desarrolla involucrando a dos sujetos principales: por una parte, el Estado a través de sus gobernantes y fuerza pública, y, por otra parte, los grupos alzados en armas. Adicionalmente, en este panorama, se encuentran unos terceros ajenos a las ideologías que originan el conflicto armado y que quizás son los más afectados: la población civil.</p><p>Por lo tanto, es necesario que, para la protección a la población víctima de desplazamiento forzado, se creen mecanismos políticos y normativos que propendan por la protección de sus derechos, tal como lo establece la Constitución Política y las distintas disposiciones jurisprudenciales; por esta razón, el objetivo de la investigación se enfocó a establecer: cuáles son los presupuestos de orden político y jurídico para que las víctimas de desplazamiento forzado en Colombia, a causa del conflicto armado, logren una reparación integral.<br />Para ello, se analizó, en primer lugar, la naturaleza jurídica que pretende implementar una reparación integral de las víctimas de desplazamiento forzado. Una vez definida la concepción de la reparación integral, se analizaron las posturas que han sido adoptadas desde el manejo jurisprudencial, el punto de vista político y los principales aportes recibidos por organismos judiciales internacionales, con miras a buscar el goce efectivo de los derechos incluyendo la participación de la población víctima de las actuaciones violentas de los grupos armados al margen de la ley.<br />Es por este motivo que el papel del Estado en la reparación de las víctimas, se encamina a aumentar los esfuerzos propensos a la recomposición del tejido social, adoptando medidas efectivas para el resarcimiento del daño causado por un periodo prolongado de violencia, pretendiendo lograr un amparo integral con acceso a la justicia y conocimiento de la verdad sobre los hechos ocurridos. Así mismo, deberá ofrecer herramientas para que las víctimas desarrollen un nuevo modelo de vida, recuperen su dignidad, superen los traumas de la violencia sistemática y generalizada, con el fin de llegar a una reconciliación nacional.<br /><br /><br /><br /></p>

Capacidades del estado y de la población víctima de violencia sociopolítica para la construcción de paz: una mirada en regiones de Sucre

El artículo es producto de la investigación “Diagnóstico de las capacidades técnicas, administrativas y humanas de las instituciones que atienden población víctima de violencia sociopolítica en las regiones golfo de Morrosquillo y Sabanas, departamento de Sucre, año 2014 -2015”. Las manifestaciones de este fenómeno sociopolítico se configuraron en amenazas, reclutamientos, desapariciones forzadas, masacres por incursión de grupos al margen de la ley, lo que generó daños psicológicos, sociales, económicos y desplazamiento de la población civil a lugares ajenos con pérdida sustancial de sus bienes materiales, sociales y espirituales. Estos hechos llevaron al gobierno a tomar la decisión política de conocer el conflicto armado, la violación de derechos humanos, la existencia del estado de cosas inconstitucionales y la necesidad de reparar a las víctimas sancionando varias leyes, entre ellas la 387 de 1997 y la 975 de 2005, las que al no surtir los efectos esperados dieron origen a la Ley 1448 de 2011, que en Colombia se constituye en el marco conceptual, metodológico y jurídico que guía la operatividad de la política pública y se dictan “medidas de asistencia, atención y reparación integral a las víctimas del conflicto armado interno y se establecen otras disposiciones”. La investigación se enmarcó en un enfoque mixto de tipo descriptivo - interpretativo, las técnicas utilizadas fueron la entrevista semiestructurada y la observación participante en contextos de atención a víctimas. Los resultados muestran fortalezas y debilidades en el cumplimiento de las funciones institucionales que determina la Ley 1448, no obstante, se enfatiza en las debilidades técnico-administrativas y humanas dada la relevancia política y social que esta información reviste, para redimensionar el actuar del Estado y la institucionalidad, en procura a garantizar el restablecimiento de derechos y la atención integral de las víctimas, para aportar a la construcción de paz desde lo regional y socio comunitario.

New remedial responses in the practice of regional human rights courts: Purposes beyond compensation

In theory, remedies ordered by regional human rights courts aim at the full reparation of the consequences of a human rights violation (restitutio in integrum). In spite of this premise, both the European and the Inter-American Courts of Human Rights have traditionally focused on the provision of pecuniary and non-pecuniary remedies for repairing actual damage directly caused by said violations. On the few occasions where the courts have been asked to grant remedies beyond a compensatory aim, they have refused to do so, declaring that these types of remedies do not fall within their competence. This article takes issue with these declarations and, through an analysis of selected case law, demonstrates that the practice of both regional courts has changed. They, each in their own way, have started to use remedial measures as an instrument that is not solely directed at compensation, but also at cessation, deterrence, and policy-making.

The Amount, Size and Order of Compensation for Harm Caused during the Implementation of the Criminal Procedure

The article explores the meaning of the principle of the compensation in full upon the occurrence of a tortious liability in comparison with the content of the principle of compensation in full for harm caused to a citizen during the implementation of the criminal procedure. In this regard, the author investigates recent judicial practice on criminal proceedings cases relating to compensation for material damage and moral harm with full and partial rehabilitation, and shows the absence of unity of interpretation of the elements of the material damage, compensated on general grounds of delictual liability (Art. 1064 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) and on special grounds (Art. 1070 of the RF Civil Code and Art. 135 of the Criminal Procedure Code). The analysis of judicial practice on this category of cases provides reasoning for the conclusion that the compensation for damage to property, paid off to the rehabilitated person is much smaller than the damage compensated under tort obligations (Art. 1064 CC RF). The author shows lack of unity in the approach to determining the amount of compensation for moral injury at full and partial rehabilitation; reveals the notion of "amount" and "size" of the recoverable damage as different legal categories; and justifies the application of the concept of "amount of compensation" and "size of compensation". The generalization of the recent judicial practice and the investigation of judicial practices of the past years, which concern tried in criminal proceedings cases related to the compensation for damage to property, compensation for moral harm suggests that in practice, the principle of full reparation for harm done by the criminal proceedings does not occur. The analysis of the current Criminal Procedure Code and the Civil Procedure legislation on compensation for damage to property, moral harm compensation, reinstatement of labour, housing, pension and other rights of rehabilitated citizen testifies the duality of the existing order for restitution of property and personal non-property rights of this category of citizens; and suggests ways to improve the existing order of compensation and the restoration of the violated rights of the victim. It is proposed that a unified judicial limitation order be implemented.

Reflexiones sobre la propagación de nuevas tipologías de daño

La proliferación de nuevas tipologías de daños genera como interrogante dilucidar si ello se condice con el principio de reparación plena que se concreta en una justa indemnización o, si por el contrario, existe un abuso. Para procurar una respuesta es ineludible observar la influencia de los cambios de paradigmas producidos, como es la constitucionalización del derecho privado en general y, de la responsabilidad civil, en particular que coloca al hombre como eje del Derecho desplazando la preeminencia patrimonialista. A la par, examinar la evolución de las distintas ramas de la ciencia que estudian al ser humano para adquirir una mirada interdisciplinaria que permitirá dar una mayor precisión en la conceptualización de los distintos tipos de daños. A partir de ello se comprende que las clásicas calificaciones y clasificaciones de los daños no satisfacen los requerimientos actuales, razón por la cual se impone una nueva sistematización, justificando la misma con el análisis de la desvinculación del daño moral del psíquico y la comparación del menoscabo al proyecto de vida con la perdida de chance. Para concretar la reparación justa, no se debe indemnizar dos veces el mismo perjuicio bajo distintas denominaciones, ni se debe desestimar un tipo de menoscabo reclamado sin justificación científica válida.

Less-than-full reparations in international law

A state responsible for an internationally wrongful act is generally under an obligation to make full reparation for the injury caused by this act. This article argues however that there are general limitations to the obligation to make full reparation. It reviews the practice of States in endorsing less-than-full reparation or even actively campaigning against full reparation in certain circumstances. It also notes the importance of the recognition of less-than-full reparation by judges and scholars in order, in particular, to facilitate the peaceful settlement of international disputes. Lastly, it identifies three alternative criteria explaining less-than-full reparation.

Повреждение клеток при сахарном диабете вызвано избыточным действием инсулина

In many scientific works the conclusion about the adaptive significance of insulin resistance was formed. There is evidence that insulin hypersecretion may precede and cause insulin resistance. In this regard, a reason is important that forces the organism to reduce the sensitivity of tissues to insulin. In the present review, the authors propose to discuss the issues, which are the tissues with diabetes vulnerable to damage. Where must push glucose during intensive therapy of diabetes mellitus, aimed at euglycemia? The vulnerability of cells is determined by the degree of sensitivity, the volume of blood perfusion, the functional significance of the tissue. The sensitivity of the cells is determined by tissue type; its functional activity; share of the total integrated activity of the organism; functional reserve capacity; degree of energy and plastic deficit. 
 Excess effect of insulin on the tissue is hypoxia and accumulation of glycogen. Insulin therapy does not prevent development of degenerative lesions in the kidneys, brain, retina and heart muscle. In terms of complex treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2 and normalization of carbohydrate metabolism does not occur full repara-tion of membrane systems due to the continuity of intensive insulin therapy. Prolonged exposure to insulin in excessive doses leads to damage accumulation and the development of complications makes the disease incurable. The need to develop mechanisms to protect cells from damage is evident. The authors suggest that to reduce the tension caused by hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance is not sufficient. Damage triggers compensatory mechanisms. The practice of continuous use of high doses of insulin to overcome insulin resistance should be terminated. It is necessary to revise the indications for insulin therapy and its duration.

Climate Change Reparations and the Law and Practice of State Responsibility

AbstractIt has been argued elsewhere that industrial states were legally responsible for interfering with the climate system by failing to prevent excessive greenhouse gas emissions. This paper determines the international legal principles relevant to the remedial obligations of industrial states. It assumes that climate change reparations should aim first at providing a signal for the cessation of the wrongful act (i.e. incentivizing climate change mitigation) rather than addressing the injury. A review of state practice in different fields suggests the existence of relevant exceptions to the principle of full reparation. These exceptions relate to the financial capacity of responsible states, the indirect nature of the injury, considerations of “culpability”, and the limitations of collective responsibility as “rough” justice. Accordingly, it is suggested that climate change reparations should be limited to partial compensation and symbolic measures of satisfaction prone to incentivize climate change mitigation.

Posturas en la atención psicosocial a víctimas del conflicto armado en Colombia

El artículo presenta una revisión de la producción académica nacional relacionada con el tema de la atención psicosocial a víctimas del conflicto armado. La revisión se realizó a partir del año 2000, con el objetivo de situar las principales consideraciones sobre los procesos de acompañamiento psicosocial a la población víctima de la violencia por el conflicto armado en la historia reciente de Colombia. El análisis se hizo a partir de cuatro categorías: 1) Iniciativas estatales para la atención psicosocial a víctimas del conflicto armado; 2) Reflexiones investigativas sobre procesos de atención a víctimas; 3) Recomendaciones para las instituciones y profesionales que adelantan procesos de atención y reparación integral a víctimas; y 4) La reivindicación del sujeto en los procesos de atención. Los resultados de este trabajo presentan un panorama sobre las principales posturas asumidas en los escenarios de atención psicosocial a víctimas del conflicto en Colombia.

Collective Redress: Will Portugal Show the Way?

Portugal is a small country by European standards and, with the financial and economic crisis, it has not always been in the limelight, for positive reasons, in the last years. Here is one area in which, however, this small country, with unlimited access to the gigantic ocean resources, could show the path, or at least, a possible path, to the rest of Europe. That path concerns collective redresses in damages competition proceedings. When the decision was made not to include provisions on collective redress in the EU Antitrust Damages Actions Directive, it became clear that each Member State would have to find its own way of interpreting the principle of effectiveness and its implications for actions relating to mass damages arising from antitrust infringements. And it is good that things turned out the way they did, because the approach which would have been possible at the EU level, as the Commission’s broader 2013 Recommendation shows, would have imposed conditions which might have seriously stifled the possibility of achieving full reparation of damages to consumers through collective enforcement. The choice for the optin system, in particular, would inevitably mean that a great number of consumers would not be represented, favouring the non-reparation of damages to those who are least informed, more prone to inertia and more in need of protection. While research seems to growingly point to the economic and sociopolitical justification of opt-out mechanisms, as long as certain safeguards are in place, very few Member States have as yet made this option. Examples that stand out, in varying degrees, are the Netherlands, Portugal and, more recently, the UK, and Belgium. On the whole, however, it seems fair to say that the laws of the Member States have not yet made it possible for companies to be ordered to fully compensate consumers for the damages caused by anticompetitive practices. Despite the many decisions taken by the European Commission and the NCAs which could have led to follow-on consumer redress, there are very few cases in the EU as a whole which can be pointed to as examples thereof. Two successful cases related to a very limited number of injured parties—the Austrian driving schools cartel case (District Court of Graz, file no. 4 C 463/06 h) and the UK’s JJB Sport case (CAT, case no. 1078/7/9/07), the latter concluded with a settlement. More often, attempts at such actions are wholly unsuccessful, usually not passing the stage of admissibility—such as the French mobile telephony case (Paris Commercial Court, 6 December 2007, UFC Que Choisir v Bouygues Telecom), the Spanish Telefonica case (Madrid Commercial Court No. 4, 7 November 2012, Ausbanc v Telefonica) or the Italian Microsoft case (Milan Tribunal, 20 December 2010, upheld by Milan Court of Appeals, 3 May 2011). This may change. On 12 March 2015, the Portuguese Competition Observatory, a non-profit association of academics from a number of Universities, filed a mass damages claim against Sport TV, which until recently held the monopoly in the provision of paid premium sports channels in Portugal (Lisbon Judicial Court, case no. 7074/15.8T8LSB). The action seeks to compensate over 600,000 clients for damages allegedly resulting from a number of anticompetitive practices, but also to compensate those who were excluded from the benefit of these channels due to the inflation of prices and all Portuguese pay-tv subscribers, between 2005 and June 2013 (over 3 million at the end of the period), who suffered from a reduction of competition on this market as a result of increased transparency and reduced incentive to competition arising from the practices of the company jointly controlled by the pay-tv market leader. Partly following an abuse of dominance decision by the Portuguese Competition Authority, confirmed by the courts, the action can lead to reparations in the tens of millions. In that case, the claim was made possible by the Portuguese (1995) actio popularis law, in which standing is given to any injured consumer or consumer association, with little in the way of certification and no financial resources requirements, very limited court fees and safeguards set up primarily through the vigilance of the Court and the Public Prosecutor. Beyond attracting claimants to Portugal, that claim may turn into a case-study for the EU as a whole. For

State Responsibility and Climate Change Governance: A Light through the Storm

Most excessive greenhouse gas emissions originate from developed states but the adverse impact of climate change is predominantly affecting developing states. This article submits that the law of state responsibility could provide important guidance for the development of the international regime on climate change. The failure of many states, in particular developed ones, to prevent excessive per capita emissions causing harm to global atmospheric commons constitutes arguably a breach of an obligation arising from the no-harm principle. The barriers to the implementation of the law of state responsibility through litigation do not exclude its applicability and the existence of secondary obligations. The obligation to cease a continuing wrongful act suggests a duty of industrial states to commit much more strongly to reducing their emissions. Overall, the obligation to make full reparation requires something essentially different from the current approach of cooperation with regard to adaptation, which, from a state responsibility perspective, seems to involve unjustified interference in the internal affairs of injured states. While certain discrepancies between the climate regime and the law of state responsibility are perhaps inevitable, developed states’ outright rejection of responsibility constitutes a major obstacle to achieving a substantial global consensus on responses to climate change.

La responsabilidad civil por productos defectuosos a la luz de la nueva Ley 3/2014 : pasado, presente y futuro desde la perspectiva legal, doctrinal y jurisprudencial

Recientemente se ha aprobado la Ley 3/2014, de 27 de marzo, por la que se modifica el texto refundido de la Ley General para la Defensa de los Consumidores y Usuarios y otras leyes complementarias, aprobado por el Real Decreto Legislativo 1/2007, de 16 de noviembre, que regula la defensa de los consumidores y usuarios. Ante ello, analizaremos las sucesivas redacciones normativas en materia de responsabilidad civil por productos defectuosos hasta el texto vigente. Abordaremos las principales novedades del ordenamiento y los supuestos de hecho que resuelve. Veremos cómo se fundamenta la indemnización de la víctima y su resarcimiento integral. Finalmente, estudiaremos los casos más paradigmáticos desde la doble perspectiva, doctrinal y jurisprudencial.Recently adopted Law 3/2014 of 27th March amends the revised text of the General Law for the Defense of Consumers and users and other complementary laws, which was approved by Royal Legislative Decree 1/2007 of 16th November, regulating the protection of consumers and users. Given this, we will analyze the successive legal reforms on civil liability for defective products until the current text. We will approach the developments within the new bill and the factual it solves. We´ll see how the compensation of the victim and his full reparation is based. Finally, we will study the most significant cases from the doctrine and jurisprudence point of view.

The Second Decenstralisation of EU Competition Law - A Must for an Orderly Administration of Justice in EU

The article argues in favour of a balance between the public and the private enforcement of the competition rules in the European Union. The paper touches on some taboos and it represents an invitation to a debate regarding an enforcement process which would respect both the imperative of a strong public enforcement and the right of the victims to full reparation of the damage incurred.