Full Owner Research Articles

Situational Analysis of Cat Ownership and Cat Caring Behaviors in a Community with High Shelter Admissions of Cats.

Managing stray cats in urban areas is an ongoing challenge, and in Australia, many are euthanized. Most stray cats are from disadvantaged areas and are under 1 year of age. The Australian Pet Welfare Foundation intended to assess the impact of a free cat sterilization program in an area with high shelter intake of cats in the city of Ipswich, Queensland. The aims of this pre-intervention study were to undertake a situational analysis of cat ownership, semi-ownership and cat caring behaviours, and compare those in the same demographic with dog ownership and caring behaviours relating to sterilization rates, to provide a basis against which to assess the program's effectiveness. In a sample of 343 participants from that area, 35% owned cats and 3% fed stray cats. Cats were predominantly obtained from family or friends (31%) and shelters (20%). More respondents owned dogs (53%), which were most often sourced from breeders (36%) and family acquaintances (24%). More owned cats than owned dogs were sterilized (91% versus 78%). However, only 74% of cats aged 4 to <12 months were sterilized. Cat containment practices varied, with 51% of owners containing their cat(s) at all times, and a further 18% doing so at night. These results suggest the need for community-based programs that focus on sterilizing owned and semi-owned cats, and assisting semi-owners in becoming full owners to reduce stray cat populations and associated negative impacts. This includes assistance with cat containment where vulnerable native species are present. Public understanding of the causes and effective solutions for free-roaming cats, alongside legislative changes, are required to facilitate these efforts. Assistive programs aligned with One Welfare principles are expected to benefit the wellbeing of animals, humans and their environments.

Protection of virtual gaming property: national and foreign experience

Today, we live in a world surrounded by virtual reality. Virtual reality is commonly used in advertising, video games, cinema, entertainment, education, training, simulations, architecture, engineering and the defense industry. Applications of virtual reality in the entertainment industry can give rise to several legal questions that need to be addressed when determining the relationship between stakeholders, especially when the transaction volume in the virtual world and virtual market trades are considered. In a digital world, digital contents can be illegally copied, communicated to the public or otherwise distributed with several clicks of a mouse within seconds from anywhere in the world. Fighting piracy and infringement of rights, including copyright, on the Internet becomes more and more important for right holders each day. Enforcement of rights on the internet, where huge amount of data are exchanged across the world every second, is another challenging subject. This is also the case for virtual environments. The scientific article analyzed domestic and foreign jurisprudence in the field of protection of virtual gaming property, conducted research on barriers to protection of virtual property, and proposed a way to overcome the problem by developing a law on virtual service providers, which would regulate relations on registration of service providers. virtual facilities, monitoring their activities, determining the rights and obligations of persons using such facilities, the risks associated with the use of virtual asset services and resolving disputes arising from contracts and agreements between the virtual asset service provider and his customers. In addition, the authors propose to create blockchain games as decentralized applications that will not only make the user a full owner of virtual gaming property, but also eliminate intermediaries in the relationship between user and game developer and in turn significantly reduce server maintenance costs.

Земельна реформа в Україні

Abstract. Introduction. Land reform is a set of measures aimed at solving complex issues of land relations regulation based on rational, efficient and sustainable land use. It guarantees citizens and local communities the right to own land, the formation of a transparent mechanism for the distribution and circulation of land resources, as well as an effective system of state management of land use. Purpose. The aim of the article is to analyze the relevance of the new land reform of Ukraine, the basic requirements for the sale and purchase of agricultural land, study the structure of the land fund of Ukraine, composition and structure of agricultural land, distribution of crops by ownership, analytical assessment of expected results from law enforcement. Results. Since the introduction of land reform in Ukraine, many problematic factors have been identified that slow down the process of concluding agreements for the purchase and sale of agricultural land. In particular, the following problems of land sales were identified: long-term verification of documents, imperfect legislation, refusal of notaries to enter into sales agreements, lack of supply in the land market, shortcomings of credit schemes for land purchase, high cost of credit. Conclusions. As a result of the analysis of land reform in Ukraine, it can be noted that the reform opens new opportunities for landowners, farmers, communities and all Ukrainians who previously did not have the opportunity to acquire and dispose of land. The population is free to dispose of its property, as befits the full owners of a democracy. The reform contributes to the economic development of the regions and the country as a whole

Osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT) use among osteopathic physicians in the United States.

Updated data on the use of Osteopathic Manipulative Treatments (OMT) by osteopathic physicians in the United States is overdue. This data would provide an up-to-date point of reference for evaluating the current use of OMT as a distinguishing feature of the osteopathic profession. To determine the prevalence of OMT use, barriers to its use, and factors that correlate with increased use. The American Osteopathic Association (AOA) distributed its triannual survey on professional practices and preferences of osteopathic physicians, including questions on OMT, to a random sample of 10,000 osteopathic physicians in August 2018 through Survey Monkey (San Mateo, CA). Follow-up efforts included a paper survey mailed to nonrespondents one month after initial distribution and three subsequent email reminders. The survey was available from August 15, 2018 to November 5, 2018. The OMT questions focused on frequency of OMT use, perceived barriers, and basic demographic information of osteopathic physician respondents. Statistical analysis (including a one sample test of proportion, chi-square, and Spearman's rho) was performed to identify significant factors influencing OMT use. Of 10,000 surveyed osteopathic physicians, 1,683 (16.83%) responded. Of those respondents, 1,308 (77.74%) reported using OMT on less than 5% of their patients, while 958 (56.95%) did not use OMT on any of their patients. Impactful barriers to OMT use included lack of time, lack of reimbursement, lack of institutional/practice support, and lack of confidence/proficiency. Factors positively correlated with OMT use included female gender, being full owner of a practice, and practicing in an office-based setting. Our data suggest that OMT use among osteopathic physicians in the US continues to decline. Barriers to its use appear to be related to the difficulty that most physicians have with successfully integrating OMT into the country's insurance-based system of healthcare delivery. Follow-up investigations on this subject in subsequent years will be imperative in the ongoing effort to monitor and preserve the distinctiveness of the osteopathic profession.

Economic Evaluation of Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries in Agrarian Reform Communities in Nueva Ecija

This study was conducted in two Agrarian Reform Communities (ARCs) in Nueva Ecija: one in San Ricardo, Talavera and the other in Alalay Grande, Lupao to evaluate the status of the Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries (ARBs) in the area. The specific objectives of the study were to; (1) evaluate and ascertain the status of ARBs; (2) describe the socio–demographic characteristics of the ARBs and the support services implemented in the ARCs; (3) ascertain the current status of ARBs in relation to landownership and tenure; (4) determine the current use of their lands and the benefits obtained by the ARBs, and (5) identify the problems encountered by the farmers-beneficiaries in relation to CARP and the ARC approaches. Based on the results, Alalay Grande ARBs were older, having small farm size and had same household size with San Ricardo. For both groups, most were full owners of the land they till and the common source of irrigation in San Ricardo was the NIA irrigation system while in Alalay Grande farms were mainly rainfed. As to the support services implemented in the ARCs, particularly in terms of physical infrastructure in the UNLAD BUHAY ARC, more than seven kilometers of road was built consisting of one road from Bantug Hacienda to Sibul and another road from Bantug Hacienda to San Ricardo. The UNLAD BUHAY ARC was also a recipient of one unit warehouse, one unit rice mill, and one unit truck (forward). In terms of technology services, a dairy processing plant is currently operated at San Ricardo. Unlad Saka technology involving off–season vegetables and integrated farming were also being practiced in the ARC. The credit support services include provision of Crop Production Loan (CPL) where the terms and condition include assignment of crop produce for those loans without collateral, for collateralized loan, a twelve percent interest for 180 days period and a rebate of two percent is given to farmers if payment is made before due date plus automatic crop insurance. Marketing promotion of products is done through trade fair initiated by Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR). In terms of current status, the ARBs of San Ricardo consist of 17 (53%) full–owners, three (9%) have already pawned–out their lands, while six (19%) have sold–out their lands, and six (19%) have fragmented their lands to their heirs. One (3%) has not yet received his Emancipation Patent (EP) title. While in Alalay Grande, 19 (38%) ARBs are full–owners, 12 (24%) are leaseholders, and 19 (38%) have fragmented their lands, and a significant number of ARBs about eight (16%) have not received yet their EP covering a total area of 41.9 has. All twelve leaseholders (24%) have received their leaseholder contracts with landowners. Generally, in terms of current use of land, San Ricardo ARBs has a total farm area of 68.4 has. while it was 108.4 has. for Alalay Grande ARBs. All farm areas are agricultural lands and rice is the primary crop planted thus, both brgys. utilized rice–rice cropping pattern. Most farmers planted high yielding varieties, such as IR-64 and PSBRc 82. The sources of seeds are mainly from the Department of Agriculture (DA) in San Ricardo while in Alalay Grande the sources of seeds are mainly from their own produce. As to seed class, most of the ARBs utilized certified seeds because they believed they are assured of good yield from utilizing such seeds. There were also problems encountered in relation to land ownership and tenure. In San Ricardo, one (3%) of the ARBs encountered erroneous EP issuance and another one has not yet received his EP title. In Alalay Grande, eight (16%) of ARBs have not yet received their EP titles. Erroneous EP issuances were due to wrong names of ARBs or spouse, and wrong area/hectarage entry. The results of t-test analysis showed that yield (cavan), gross return, cost of material inputs, cost of labor, other cost, net return, return to labor, return to current material input, return per peso spent, and net profit margin are significant hence, confirming the benefits obtained by the ARBs from the land awarded to them under CARP. The results further support the hypothesis that ARBs gained thru production and profit from their farms. The ARC approach is important for ARBs to maximize the benefits from their lands. However, problems relating to its implementation must be addressed by concerned agencies to reap the full benefits of the support services intended for ARBs.

Land Ownership of Territorial Communities

Taking into account the ongoing democratic transformations in our country, the decentralization reform deserves special attention, which is aimed at ensuring broad independence of territorial communities in solving their own socio-economic problems of a particular region. One of the key issues of such a reform is the formation of capable administrative-territorial units, endowed with full power not only in terms of administrative management but as full owners of the relevant resource base grounded on land. Unfortunately, the transformations carried out in Ukraine through privatization in general and privatization of land and legislative consolidation of new forms of land ownership have led to uncertainty about the object composition of communal land ownership, failed to ensure social harmony, creating crisis phenomena of demographic and socio-economic nature, especially in rural areas. As a result, the legal model of state regulation of land relations remains incomplete, in which the balance of private and public interests in land use within territorial communities would be ensured by law, which determined the content of the study. The work analyses the theoretical and normative principles of land ownership, in particular, the conclusion that the form of land ownership due to its functional purpose and special subject-object composition, determines the mechanism of formation and termination of ownership. Scientific conclusions and recommendations are formulated, on which it is expedient to build a modern state policy on the formation and establishment in society of the concept of communal ownership of land as a basis for the effective development of territorial communities. According to the results of the study, the need to change the administrative-territorial division by regulating the community at the constitutional level as the primary administrative-territorial unit, which is the basis for the formation of communal land ownership. Amendments to the Land Code of Ukraine are proposed in order to determine the right of communal ownership of land within territorial communities.

Cetatea Jdioara – sfârșit de drum (1693-1701) / The Fortress at Jdioara – End of a Story (1693-1701)

Built at the end of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th century, the royal fortress/castle at Jdioara, located on the road from Caransebeş to Lugoj, was part of the defensive chain in the Banatic highlands against the Turkish penetration, as well as a checkpoint on the road to Transylvania. During that time the fortress/castle at Jdioara changed several owners, from voyvods of Transylvania (John Pongrácz of Dindeleag), princes of Hungary (John Corvinus, natural son of king Mathias Corvinus) or leaders (ban) of the so-called banat of Caransebeş and Lugoj (Steven Tompa, Paul Keresztesi) to some members of local highranking noble families (Macskási/Măcicaş of Tincova, Fiat of Armeniş/Caransebeş, Jósika of Caransebeş/Brănişca). %e last known owner of Jdioara before the Turkish seize of the banat of Caransebş and Lugoj in 1658 was Sigismund Jósika, son of the former Transylvanian chancellor Steven Jósika. During the war between Austria and the Ottoman Empire the former banat, as well as the fortress/castle at Jdioara, passed in the years from 1688 to 1699, for longer or shorter periods of time, from one hand to the other. Gabriel Jósika, a descendent of Sigimund Jósika, along with many noble-fellows fleeing from Caransebeş in 1658, returned with the Austrian army, seizing the opportunity to request the restitution of the lost real estates, among them the fortress/castle of Jdioara. General Federico Veterani, the commander in chief of Transylvania, granted to Gabriel Jósika (a man having a consistent political career in the autonomous Principality of Transylvania and thereafter under Habsburg rule) the possession of Jdioara and the surrounding villages by a donation-deed from January 24th, 1693. At the suggestion of the Imperial Court-Chamber (kaiserliche Hofkammer), Emperor Leopold Ist has decided that Jósika, as well as his other fellow-nobles, is to be considered only as a user and in no case as a full owner of the acquired estates, on the principle of uti possidetis. A final decision on the real possession was postponed after the conclusion of a peace with the Porte. During a journey to Vienna in the spring of 1697, Gabriel Jósika tried to obtain, by means of a petition filed to the Emperor, the acknowledgment of his full possession on Jdioara, but with no chance to succeed. Meanwhile, the treaty of peace concluded at Karlowitz (January 26th, 1699) granted the whole province of Banat to the Ottoman Empire, compelling Austria to demolish all occupied fortresses/castles, including Jdioara, before leaving the territory. %e final Austro-Turkish convention from December 2nd, 1700 on the border-delimitation had put an end to all hopes of Gabriel Jósika. On January 19th, 1701, from his camp on the river Bistra, major general count Luigi Ferdinando Marsili, imperial commissioner in the region, ordered major Leopold Friedrich Ungar de Merana, commander in Caransebeş and of the military border in the Banatic highlands, to proceed without any delay to the demolition of the fortress/castle at Jdioara. %e demolition works were entrusted to lieutenant-colonel Giovanni Morando Visconti, an imperial military engineer. On March 17th, 1701 he wrote to general Marsili, that on the previous day, at 16:00 hours, the fortress/castle at Jdioara was completly destroyed by successive gunpowder explosions.

Women’s Agential Power in the Political Economy of Agricultural Land

This article seeks to understand whether the legal policies and advances of women’s movements have resulted in women’s entitlement to land and whether the land reforms carried out from the 1970s to the 1990s have weakened the grip of patriarchy and increased women’s capability and land-related decision-making power. We examine these questions by looking at (i) women as producers of agricultural goods and participants in the market economy and (ii) women as partial or full owners of land and the impact of this on decision-making. In both cases, there is the role of women as managers of productive assets, which is different from their former and traditional status as dependent family members.

The living commons of West Tyrol, Austria: Lessons for land policy and land administration

A right of commoners to pastures existed since the Early Middle Ages in Anglo-Saxon England and the European mainland, including Tyrol in Austria. Lowland commons institutions were largely dissolved by the 19th century; however, in the European Alps contiguous commons remain alive. Some two thousand alpine commons institutions are registered in the Tyrolean parcel cadaster and land registry. A specific study of West-Tyrolean commons (known as Agrargemeinschaft or AGMs), framed by Ostrom's design principles is presented. General lessons for land policy and land administration are extracted. An interview period was split between the Inn valley and the Ötztal. Roughly half are considered independent: others are regulated by the Tyrolean Agricultural Authority. Some AGMs hold the full bundle of land rights: others only hold pastoral and forestry rights. AGMs consisted either of a single cadastral parcel or several contiguous parcels. In the Inn valley villages the pastoral commons were owned by the municipalities, while in the researched Ötztal, AGMs are frequently the full owners of the commons. AGM membership ranges between 5 and 60 farm households. The number of livestock units pastured was in most cases stipulated in approved regulations. Alpine commons larger than 200ha are also hunting-zones: revenue is collected from the lease of hunting rights. Most of the alpine commons are designated and used as ski-zones. Upper portions of two alpine commons in the Ötztal are state protected natural areas. The number of farms with pastoral rights is declining at District and State level. Key lessons for land policy and land administration include: Ostrom's design principles being a precondition rather than a panacea; commons institutions requiring one clear ownership party; both public and collective ownership producing success; publically owned commons requiring a local representative; small membership numbers being preferable; small shareholdings not being preferable; decentralized governance being beneficial; internal democratic elections being beneficial; internal boundary records being superfluous; explicit sanctions being superfluous; mixed economies being acceptable; and geography being a significant influence on the longevity of pastoral commons.

AkzoNobel becomes full owner of Akzo Nippon Paint Holding

AkzoNobel becomes full owner of Akzo Nippon Paint Holding

Electro-reclamation, a versatile soil remediation solution

Work on electrokinetic technology started in the Netherlands around 1985 with Geokinetics. In 1994 the company teamed up with Hak Milieutechniek (HMT), which became full owner of the company in 1999. This paper briefly compares and contrasts Geokinetics' and HMT's commercially driven approach with that of the more traditional and academic approach adopted by many other workers in the field. It outlines our primary attention and focus on electrokinetic technology to solubilize and recover ionic contamination from ground and groundwater. The simple fact that most of the contaminated sites all over the world contain more often than not a mixture of both inorganic and organic components forced us to extend the use of electricity to cope with all sorts of pollution. The knowledge we gained and the challenges of this opportunity lead us to the development of electro-remediation, a combination of techniques having electricity as the common denominator: – electrokinetic recovery of inorganic contamination and electroheated recovery of organic contamination in combination with soil vapour extraction and low flow groundwater extraction; – electroheated and electrokinetically enhanced biodegradation in combination with addition of nutrients and electron donors or acceptors; – electrokinetic containment and remediation of polluted sites and groundwater plumes. The paper gives an overview and description of a number of benchmark projects in the aforementioned areas.

Australian Farm Inheritance—New Patterns of Legal Structure in Property Rights and Landholding

New circumstances in Australian agriculture require new legal arrangements for landholding and for people who have new aspirations for retirement and succession planning. A recent Australia-wide farm survey of landholding patterns creates space for consideration of these changing property concepts and relationships as they relate to inheritance patterns and the engagement of the next generation in farming. Early studies of land tenure predicted a gradual progression from tenant or share farmer to full owner as aspiring young farmers aged and became more involved in farming and raising a family. This pattern has come under scrutiny as corporate involvement in agriculture accelerates in Western societies. This paper investigates Australian family farmer intentions to pass farm assets on to chosen heirs so that the present family farming system continues intact. Survey data collected from a broader study of a variety of farming industries is used to tease out whether new patterns of legal structure in land and job inheritance are emerging. The findings indicate that different legal structures of property ownership are utilised as legitimate means of protecting farmer values concerned with property, family and inheritance. Further research on inheritance patterns and legal structure in Australia is indicated.

Agency Relations within the Family Business System: an exploratory approach

Researchers use various definitions to describe the family firm. The characteristics of family firms that are stressed in each of these definitions are somehow related to family control. All characteristics together reflect a spectrum of family firm types along one core dimension: family involvement in the firm. However, it is more helpful to distinguish among family firms by using their precise type. Each particular family firm type is characterised by a set of agency relations within and between the family system, ownership system and the business system. This paper is a first attempt to apply the insights from agency theory on a highly simplified (reference) family firm situation where the father is full owner and the daughter manager of the family firm. Agency theory establishes the foundation for the optimal contract conditions between father and daughter. While real life is often characterised by bounded rationality and incomplete information, future research should help identify the “optimal contract” be‐tween the family/shareholders and management in various family firm types under these circumstances.

How Types of Goods and Property Rights Jointly Affect Collective Action

The study of collective action has matured dramatically since Mancur Olson challenged scholars by positing a general theory in his pathbreaking book on The Logic of Collective Action (1965). Olson's theoretical predictions related to the incapacity of individuals, except under limited conditions, to solve on their own what are now known as `collective action problems'. Olson argued that one characteristic of goods - that of exclusion - defined all public goods. In contemporary analysis, the problem of achieving exclusion of noncontributors has come instead to characterize all types of collective action problems. Multiple subtypes of collective action problems have been identified. One major class of collective action problems are referred to in contemporary literature as public goods. Another class are referred to as common-pool resources. Common-pool resources are characterized by difficulty of exclusion and subtractability of resource units and are threatened by overuse leading to congestion or even destruction of the resource. Such threats do not apply to public goods. Diverse production and allocation functions generate further important differences in behavior and outcomes. Scholars have also begun to recognize multiple types of property right bundles that distinguish among authorized entrants, users and claimants, proprietors and full owners. Empirical studies show that groups of individuals who possess at least the rights of proprietorship are able to govern and manage their systems more effectively than presumed in the earlier theoretical literature. The article ends with an analysis of the factors that may be conducive to the organization of a common-property regime as contrasted to a private-property regime.

1994 ACCOUNTING HALL OF FAME INDUCTION: ROBERT SPROUSE

INTRODUCTION by Professor Charles T. Horngren Stanford University I am honored and pleased to introduce Robert Sprouse on this noteworthy occasion. Among the many positive words that might be used to describe Bob Sprouse are: intelligent, dependable, pleasant, good-humored, gentlemanly, good listener, articulate, and fun to be with. I met Bob and Fran Sprouse at Bill Vatter's house in California in January 1959, over 35 years ago. I first heard about Bob in 1955. Bill Vatter was seeking new young talent then for the University of Chicago. Bill mentioned that some doctoral student named Sprouse at Minnesota was a sparkling star in teaching. Many academics are clearly outstanding teachers. Too often, their reputations and recognition are confined at best to their home institutions. For those who may be unaware, Bob Sprouse has an enviable record as a superb teacher in every dimension of that important role. Before reading the citation, let me share a few Sprouse items that may not be well known. (1) He is about the only person I know whose handwriting is a model of flawless penmanship. He writes like an accountant should. (2) Bob Sprouse has had a variety of interests. Of course, he was the staid vice-chairman of the Financial Accounting Standards Board. But shortly thereafter, he became a part-owner of a race horse and an avid $2 bettor at the Tijuana racetrack and elsewhere. Even as a two-dollar bettor, a couple of years ago Bob bought an $8 ticket in an attempt to pick the winners of all nine races at Santa Anita. No one had eight or nine winners that day. For his seven winners, he received $45,000. He now is the full owner of two fillies. Bob's long-time friend, Bob Jaedicke, once asked why Sprouse wasted his investment dollars on a horse. Why didn't he sell? Bob Sprouse responded that he had too much money invested therein. Perhaps he never did understand the concept of sunk costs. (3) When Bob Sprouse and I were Stanford colleagues, one afternoon I was a passenger in his car. He was driving at or above the speed limit in the fast lane of a busy Bay Area freeway. Suddenly we ran out of gas. I do not recommend that situation to anybody. Fortunately, after a few harrowing moments, we were able to coast off to the side. Bob Sprouse was suitably embarrassed. Bob, I'll always cherish the memory of our sharing this neardeath experience. I am glad that we are both still alive to enjoy today's grand occasion. CITATION by Professor Thomas J. Burns The Ohio State University Although he has a lifetime of achievements, he started his life in very humble circumstances. Born in rural San Diego county in 1922, he lived with his mother and four brothers and sisters after his parents separated. For a while they lived on the earnings of his two older brothers who caddied on weekends. His mother worked for 25 years sorting lemons in a packing house. He was the only member of his family ever to attend college. After high school, he attended San Diego State College, the older brother helping out financially. He did not do well in college. After two years, he was on probation and decided to quit. His brother agreed. Until he was drafted in 1942, he worked at a Piggly Wiggly grocery store and then a nursery/flower shop, starting at a salary of $15 a week. He had never held a rifle in his hands before infantry basic training, but he qualified as an expert. As a result, he was promoted to corporal and later to sergeant. He was accepted in Officer Candidate School and, in 1945, was commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant in the infantry. During three years in Germany, he served as a prosecutor in General Courts Martial where he met his wife, Fran, who was a U.S. civilian court reporter. They spent their honeymoon in Venice. He left the service in 1949 to pursue a college degree, relying heavily on the GI Bill, which helped finance higher education for veterans. …

The XIV European Congress of Pathology

A right of commoners to pastures existed since the Early Middle Ages in Anglo-Saxon England and the European mainland, including Tyrol in Austria. Lowland commons institutions were largely dissolved by the 19th century; however, in the European Alps contiguous commons remain alive. Some two thousand alpine commons institutions are registered in the Tyrolean parcel cadaster and land registry. A specific study of West-Tyrolean commons (known as Agrargemeinschaft or AGMs), framed by Ostrom's design principles is presented. General lessons for land policy and land administration are extracted. An interview period was split between the Inn valley and the Ötztal. Roughly half are considered independent: others are regulated by the Tyrolean Agricultural Authority. Some AGMs hold the full bundle of land rights: others only hold pastoral and forestry rights. AGMs consisted either of a single cadastral parcel or several contiguous parcels. In the Inn valley villages the pastoral commons were owned by the municipalities, while in the researched Ötztal, AGMs are frequently the full owners of the commons. AGM membership ranges between 5 and 60 farm households. The number of livestock units pastured was in most cases stipulated in approved regulations. Alpine commons larger than 200 ha are also hunting-zones: revenue is collected from the lease of hunting rights. Most of the alpine commons are designated and used as ski-zones. Upper portions of two alpine commons in the Ötztal are state protected natural areas. The number of farms with pastoral rights is declining at District and State level. Key lessons for land policy and land administration include: Ostrom's design principles being a precondition rather than a panacea; commons institutions requiring one clear ownership party; both public and collective ownership producing success; publically owned commons requiring a local representative; small membership numbers being preferable; small shareholdings not being preferable; decentralized governance being beneficial; internal democratic elections being beneficial; internal boundary records being superfluous; explicit sanctions being superfluous; mixed economies being acceptable; and geography being a significant influence on the longevity of pastoral commons.

Ownership and Productivity of Marine Fishery Resources

Abstract The incentives of the commons ceased to suffice as a management framework for marine fishery resources during the 1960s. The laws of demand and supply went awry. Demand rose; supply of the more valuable species declined as fishing effort increased. Measures taken to solve the resulting overfishing problem have failed to remove the root cause, the incentives of harvester rights inherent in a commons. The resulting management system creates ill will and friction that severely impede management of the resources. The efficacy of a management framework based on ownership of the ocean pastures is compared to one based on rights to harvest. The conclusion is reached that a full owner framework provides a well-tested basis for management of marine fishery resources that can result in a large increase in resource benefits.

Part Owners and the Changing Spatial Structure of Farms in the South: A Case Study

Southeastern Geographer Vol. XXXI, No. 1, May 1991, pp. 44-51 PART OWNERS AND THE CHANGING SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF FARMS IN THE SOUTH: A CASE STUDY LizbethA. PyIe Part owners, farmers who own some land to use as their base of operations and rent the additional acreage they need to assemble a competitively sized farm, are now widely recognized as leaders in large-scale agriculture across the United States. (J) They surpassed full owners in terms of land in farms they operated in 1950 and hold that position today, controlling 54% of the total acreage in farmland according to the 1987 agricultural census. The Southeast has mirrored this national trend of increasing part ownership, which virtually replaced the "old-fashioned tenancy" of the sharecropping era. (2) Despite the region's unique agricultural history, southern farms have become as labor-efficient and capital-intensive as farms anywhere in the United States, investing in machinery, adopting new technologies, and renting the additional land needed to create larger holdings. (3) In recent years, part owners have continued to expand their operations on rented land and dominate the Southeast's harvested cropland (Table 1). While their dominance in crop production is not threatened, tenants (i.e., farmers who rent all the land they operate) have challenged part owners for the control of additional acreage. Although these trends for farming units seem relatively stable overall, aggregated statistics mask the dynamic nature of land tenure. In actuality, rented parcels of land can be added to or deleted from a particular farm unit, and this leads to changes in its spatial structure. There is no basic source of published information on farm layout, and insight must be gained from case studies. The Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) houses an under-utilized source of primary data on farm operations in every county of the United States. Records on farm operators, the tracts they operate, and their tenure status on each tract can be coupled with large-scale air photos identifying the location of individual tracts. I used Dr. PyIe is Assistant Professor of Geography at West Virginia University in Morgantown, WV 26506. Vol. XXXI, No. 1 45 TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF PART OWNERS AND TENANTS IN THE SOUTHEAST, 1978 AND 1987* 19781987 CharacteristicPart OwnersTenantsPart OwnersTenants Percentage of land in farms operated44.68.243.08.8 Average acreage of farm operation339.3166.6351.7223.0 Percentage of operation on rented land51.2(100.0)53.3(100.0) Percentage of all cropland harvested58.712.356.513.5 Average acreage of cropland harvested162.094.4159.2127.1 * Southeast defined as states in two Bureau of Census regional divisions: East South Central (Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama) and South Atlantic (West Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida) Source: United States Census ofAgriculture 1978 and 1987. this combination of data sources to reveal changes in selected characteristics of farms growing crops in one South Carolina county. This report studies changes that occurred in the tenure, size, and spatial structure of farms in Calhoun County, South Carolina, during a ten-year period from 1976 to 1986. (4) Farms in Calhoun County are representative of agriculture in the Inner Coastal Plain counties where row crops continue to provide the lifeblood of the local economy. The county lies amidst one of the "islands of cropland in a sea of pine trees" that Hart identified in a study of cropland concentrations in the South. (5) His characterization of the area rings even truer today. Cotton has continued to contribute significantly to Calhoun County's agricultural economy despite acreage declines in the 1970s and early 1980s. Then, many farmers turned to soybeans, which they could double-crop with wheat or other small grains, but their enchantment with soybeans did not last. Soybean acreage plummeted between the 1982 and 1987 agricultural censuses, while cotton acreage increased for the first time in years. A drop in soybean prices, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) for erodible land, and the boll weevil eradication program precipitated this reversal. Calhoun County's total land area in farms declined from 54% to 38% between the 1974 and 1987 agricultural censuses. To some extent, the 46Southeastern...

Land Tenure in Greek Agriculture

The land tenure system may be considered as a set of arrangements under which farms are owned and operated. It also contains a set of rights which determine the manner with which land can be sold, bequeathed, rented, cultivated, etc. Usually, in the economic analysis of agriculture the land tenure system is taken as constant, since during periods of social and political stability, it changes very slowly. Under the pressure of economic, demographic, and other forces, the exact configuration of land tenure may change, in the sense of changing, for example, the proportion of land cultivated by full owners, tenants, etc. These changes occur slowly as the economic conditions provide the proper motivation. These changes have important effects on various aspects of agricultural production but they do not affect the basic institutional framework of land tenure arrangements. In other words, they do not change the existing property rights on land. Of course, in the historical process of development of many countries, there have been revolutionary periods, where the land tenure arrangements have changed radically by confiscation of large estates and redistribution of land to landless peasants. These revolutionary changes are the result of a long process of economic, social, and political development which creates the need for new systems of land tenure.

The Heart of China's Problem, the Land Tenure System

IN THE present nation-wide predicament, the main difficulty with which China is confronted is the steady worsening of the agrarian situation. Actually this has for a long time been the core of political agitation and civil dissension. The ever-increasing population pressure on resources has intensified the seriousness of an already acute problem. Political factions and their campaigns in China today are basically an organized struggle between the landowning gentry and the landless peasantry to gain power. It is argued that, since the gravity of the farm land tenure situation in China is recognized, one need not be alarmed, because the percentage of tenancy in China is not especially high and the trend of its growth has in the last thirty years been low in comparison with the upward curve in the United States whose proportion of tenants to all other farm operators soared from 25.6 percent in 1879 to 34.5 percent in 1945. However, it must be remembered that a numerical comparison, such as this, can help very little in clarifying the underlying fundamental differences of the tenancy problems between these two countries. An elaborate estimate regarding both the percentage and trend of farm tenancy, calculated by the National Agricultural Research Bureau, in 1937, shows that, of different tenure classes in 1911, the tenants constituted 28 percent, part owners, 23 percent, and full owners, 49 percent. Twenty-five years later, in 1937, the percentage of tenants had increased to 30 percent, part owners, to 24 percent, while the percentage of the full owners had shrunk to 46 percent.1 Still later in 1939, when the provinces with higher proportion of owner peasants in North China and Manchuria were lost to Japanese, the percentage of tenants in the fifteen provinces of Free