Full Halo Research Articles

Clarifying some issues on the geoeffectiveness of limb halo CMEs

AbstractA recent study by Cid et al. (2012) showed that full halo coronal mass ejections (CMEs) coming from the limb can disturb the terrestrial environment. Although this result seems to rise some controversies with the well established theories, the fact is that the study encourages the scientific community to perform careful multidisciplinary analysis along the Sun-to-Earth chain to fully understand which are the solar triggers of terrestrial disturbances. This paper aims to clarify some of the polemical issues arisen by that paper.

KINEMATICS OF OUTER HALO GLOBULAR CLUSTERS IN M31

We present the first kinematic analysis of the far outer halo globular cluster (GC) population in the Local Group galaxy M31. Our sample contains 53 objects with projected radii of ~20-130 kpc, of which 44 have no previous spectroscopic information. GCs with projected radii >30 kpc are found to exhibit net rotation around the minor axis of M31, in the same sense as the inner GCs, albeit with a smaller amplitude of 79 +/-19 km/s. The rotation-corrected velocity dispersion of the full halo GC sample is 106 +/-12 km/s, which we observe to decrease with increasing projected radius. We find compelling evidence for kinematic-coherence amongst GCs which project on top of halo substructure, including a clear signature of infall for GCs lying along the North-West stream. Using the tracer mass estimator, we estimate the dynamical mass of M31 within 200 kpc to be M_M31 = (1.2-1.5) +/- 0.2 x 10^12 M_sun. This value is highly dependent on the chosen model and assumptions within.

Can a halo CME from the limb be geoeffective?

The probability for a halo coronal mass ejection (CME) to be geoeffective is assumed to be higher the closer the CME launch site is located to the solar central meridian. However, events far from the central meridian may produce severe geomagnetic storms, like the case in April 2000. In this work, we study the possible geoeffectiveness of full halo CMEs with the source region situated at solar limb. For this task, we select all limb full halo (LFH) CMEs that occurred during solar cycle 23, and we search for signatures of geoeffectiveness between 1 and 5 days after the first appearance of each CME in the LASCO C2 field of view. When signatures of geomagnetic activity are observed in the selected time window, interplanetary data are carefully analyzed in order to look for the cause of the geomagnetic disturbance. Finally, a possible association between geoeffective interplanetary signatures and every LFH CME in solar cycle 23 is checked in order to decide on the CME's geoeffectiveness. After a detailed analysis of solar, interplanetary, and geomagnetic data, we conclude that of the 25 investigated events, there are only four geoeffective LFH CMEs, all coming from the west limb. The geoeffectiveness of these events seems to be moderate, turning to intense in two of them as a result of cumulative effects from previous mass ejections. We conclude that ejections from solar locations close to the west limb should be considered in space weather, at least as sources of moderate disturbances.

Solar and interplanetary precursors of geomagnetic storms in solar cycle 23

Estimating the magnetic storm effectiveness of solar and associated interplanetary phenomena is of practical importance for space weather modelling and prediction. This article presents results of a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the probable causes of geomagnetic storms during the 11-year period of solar cycle 23: 1996–2006. Potential solar causes of 229 magnetic storms (Dst⩽−50nT) were investigated with a particular focus on halo coronal mass ejections (CMEs). A 5-day time window prior to the storm onset was considered to track backward the Sun’s eruptions of halo CMEs using the SOHO/LASCO CMEs catalogue list. Solar and interplanetary (IP) properties associated with halo CMEs were investigated and correlated to the resulting geomagnetic storms (GMS). In addition, a comparative analysis between full and partial halo CME-driven storms is established. The results obtained show that about 83% of intense storms (Dst⩽−100nT) were associated with halo CMEs. For moderate storms (−100nT<Dst⩽−50nT), only 54% had halo CME background, while the remaining 46% were assumed to be associated with corotating interaction regions (CIRs) or undetected frontside CMEs. It was observed in this study that intense storms were mostly associated with full halo CMEs, while partial halo CMEs were generally followed by moderate storms. This analysis indicates that up to 86% of intense storms were associated with interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs) at 1AU, as compared to moderate storms with only 44% of ICME association. Many other quantitative results are presented in this paper, providing an estimate of solar and IP precursor properties of GMS within an average 11-year solar activity cycle. The results of this study constitute a key step towards improving space weather modelling and prediction.

Dependence of solar proton events on their associated activities: Coronal mass ejection parameters

In this study we have examined the occurrence probability of solar proton events (SPEs) and their peak fluxes depending on coronal mass ejection (CME) parameters, linear speed (V), angular width (AW), and location (L). For this we used the NOAA SPE list and their associated CME data from 1997 to 2006. We found that the probability strongly depends on CME speed and angular width as follows. The highest association (36.1%) is found for the full halo CMEs with V ≥ 1500 kms−1 but the lowest association (0.9%) is found for the partial halo CMEs with 400 kms−1 ≤ V &lt; 1000 kms−1. The SPE occurrence probabilities are different as much as 4.9 to 23 times according to CME speed and 1.6 to 6.5 times to angular width. The probabilities depending on CME speed and location increase from the eastern region to the western region and with speed. We have also examined the relationship between CME speed and SPE flux as well as its dependence on angular width (partial halo and full halo), longitude (east, center, and west) and direction parameter (&lt;0.4 and ≥0.4). Our results show that the relationships strongly depend on longitude as well as direction parameter.

Very intense geomagnetic storms and their relation to interplanetary and solar active phenomena

We revisit previous studies in which the characteristics of the solar and interplanetary sources of intense geomagnetic storms have been discussed. In this particular analysis, using the Dst time series, we consider the very intense geomagnetic storms that occurred during Solar Cycle 23 by setting a value of Dstmin⩽-200nT as threshold. After carefully examining the set of available solar and in situ observations from instruments aboard the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) and the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), complemented with data from the ground, we have identified and characterized the solar and interplanetary sources of each storm. That is to say, we determine the time, angular width, plane-of-the-sky, lateral expansion, and radial velocities of the source coronal mass ejection (CME), the type and heliographic location of the CME solar source region (including the characteristics of the sunspot groups), and the time duration of the associated flare. After this, we investigate the overall characteristics of the interplanetary (IP) main-phase storm driver, including the time arrival of the shock/disturbance at 1AU, the type of associated IP structure/ejecta, the origin of a prolonged and enhanced southward component (Bs) of the IP field, and other characteristics related to the energy injected into the magnetosphere during the storm (i.e. the solar wind maximum convected electric field, Ey). The analyzed set consists of 20 events, some of these are complex and present two or more Dst minima that are, in general, due to consecutive solar events. The 20 storms are distributed along Solar Cycle 23 (which is a double-peak cycle) in such a way that 15% occurs during the rising phase of the cycle, 45% during both cycle maxima, and, surprisingly, 40% during the cycle descending phase. This latter set includes half of the superstorms and the only cycle extreme event. 85% of the storms are associated to full halo CMEs and 10% to partial halo events. One of the storms occurred at the time contact with SOHO was lost. The CME solar sources of all analyzed storms, but one, are active regions (ARs). The source of the remaining CME is a bipolar low-field region where a long and curved filament erupts. The ARs where the CMEs originate show, in general, high magnetic complexity; δ spots are present in 74% of the ARs, 10% are formed by several bipolar sunspot groups, and only 16% present a single bipolar sunspot group. All CMEs are associated to long duration events (LDEs), exceeding 3h in all cases, with around 75% lasting more than 5h. The associated flares are, in general, intense events, classified as M or X in soft X-rays; only 3 of them fall in the C class, with the one happening in the bipolar low field region hardly reaching the C level. We calculate the lateral expansion velocity for most of the CMEs. The values found exceed in all cases but one the fast solar wind speed (≈750kms−1). The average lateral expansion velocity is 2400kms−1. The spatial distribution of the solar CME sources on the solar disk shows an evident asymmetry; while there are no sources located more eastward than 12° in longitude, there are 7 events more westward than 12°. Nevertheless, the bulk of the solar sources are located near Sun center, i.e. at less than 20° in longitude or latitude. Considering the IP structures responsible for a long and enhanced Bs, we find that 35% correspond to magnetic clouds (MCs) or ICME fields, 30% to sheath fields, and 30% to combined sheath and MC or ICME fields. For only one storm the origin of Bs is related to the back compression of an ICME by a high speed stream coming from a coronal hole in the neighborhood of the corresponding CME source region. We have also found that for this particular set of storms the linear relation between Ey and the storm intensity holds (with a correlation coefficient of 0.73). These results complement and extend those of other works in the literature.

Solar and interplanetary triggers of the largest Dst variations of the solar cycle 23

We present the results of an investigation from the Sun to the Earth of the sequence of events that caused major Dst decreases (ΔDst≤–100nT during 1h) that occurred during 1996–2005. These events are expected to be better related to geomagnetic induced current (GIC) events than those events where any geomagnetic index is far from its quiet time value. At least one full halo CME with a speed on the plane of sky above 900km/s participates in every studied event. The seven events were triggered by interplanetary signatures, which arise as a consequence of interaction among different solar ejections. The interaction arises at different stages from the solar surface, between segments of a filament, to the interplanetary medium, appearing as ejecta or multiple-magnetic clouds (MultiMCs). In other cases, shock waves overtake or compress previous ICMEs and at other times the interaction also appears between magnetic clouds (MCs) and streams.

Predictions of SEP events by means of a linear filter and layer-recurrent neural network

Solar energetic particle (SEP) modelling has gained great interest in the community, specifically in connection with the safety of crews and the protection of technological systems of spacecraft situated outside the shielding of Earth's magnetosphere. Two models for the prediction of SEP events are presented in this paper. The models are based on a linear filter and on a special type of dynamic artificial neural network known as the layer-recurrent neural network. In this work they use as input the following parameters: the X-ray flare class for flares originating close to the centre of the solar disk; observed type II or IV radio bursts; and of the position angle, width, and linear speed of observed full or partial halo CMEs. The models are designed to provide forecasts of proton fluxes with energies exceeding 10 MeV at the L1 libration point.

Antiprotons from dark matter: Effects of a position-dependent diffusion coefficient

Energetic antiprotons in cosmic rays can serve as an important indirect signature of dark matter. Conventionally, the antiproton flux from dark matter decays or annihilations is calculated by solving the transport equation with a space-independent diffusion coefficient within the diffusion zone of the galaxy, and assuming free propagation outside this zone. Antiproton sources outside of the diffusion zone are ignored. In reality, it is far more likely that the diffusion coefficient increases smoothly with distance from the disk, and the outlying part of the dark matter halo ignored in the conventional approach can be significant, containing as much as 90% of the galactic dark matter by mass in some models. We extend the conventional approach to address these issues. We obtain analytic approximations and numerical solutions for antiproton flux assuming that the diffusion coefficient increases exponentially with the distance from the disk, and including contributions from dark matter annihilations/decays in essentially the full dark matter halo. We find that the antiproton flux predicted in this model deviates from the conventional calculation for the same dark matter parameters by up to about 25%.

Cell count moments in the halo model

We study cell count moments up to fifth order of the distributions of haloes, of halo substructures as a proxy for galaxies, and of mass in the context of the halo model and compare theoretical predictions to the results of numerical simulations. On scales larger than the size of the largest cluster, we present a simple point cluster model in which results depend only on cluster-cluster correlations and on the distribution of the number of objects within a cluster, or cluster occupancy. The point cluster model leads to expressions for moments of galaxy counts in which the volume-averaged moments on large scales approach those of the halo distribution and on smaller scales exhibit hierarchical clustering with amplitudes $S_k$ determined by moments of the occupancy distribution. In this limit, the halo model predictions are purely combinatoric, and have no dependence on halo profile, concentration parameter, or potential asphericity. The full halo model introduces only two additional effects: on large scales, haloes of different mass have different clustering strengths, introducing relative bias parameters; and on the smallest scales, halo structure is resolved and details of the halo profile become important, introducing shape-dependent form factors. Because of differences between discrete and continuous statistics, the hierarchical amplitudes for galaxies and for mass behave differently on small scales even if galaxy number is exactly proportional to mass, a difference that is not necessarily well described in terms of bias.

Statistical study on the relationship between halo CME and coronal dimming

The data from SOHO/EIT and SOHO/LASCO observations are used to determine the relationship between coronal dimming and full halo CME (coronal mass ejection). The events of full halo CME examined in this study were observed by LASCO coronagraphs and taken from the CD AW CME catalog from 1996 to 2008. Dimming events are identified by using difference images taken by EIT at the 195 A passband. We found strong relationship between full halo CMEs and the coronal dimming events, with up to 93.3% of the front-side halo CMEs associated with the EIT 195 A dimming events. Full halo CMEs that show no clear signatures of dimming usually have lower sky plane velocities (<700 km/s) compared to the mean velocity of CMEs associated with dimming.

EVOLUTION OF SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD AND ASSOCIATED MULTIWAVELENGTH PHENOMENA: FLARE EVENTS ON 2003 NOVEMBER 20

We analyze H-alpha images, soft X-ray profiles, magnetograms, extreme ultra-violet images and radio observations of two homologous flare events (M1.4/1N and M9.6/2B) on 20 November 2003 in the active region NOAA 10501 and study properties of reconnection between twisted filament systems, energy release and associated launch of coronal mass ejections (CMEs). During both events twisted filaments observed in H-alpha approached each other and initiated the flare processes. However, the second event showed the formation of cusp as the filaments interacted. The rotation of sunspots of opposite polarities, inferred from magnetograms likely powered the twisted filaments and injection of helicity. Along the current sheet between these two opposite polarity sunspots, the shear was maximum, which could have caused the twist in the filament. At the time of interaction between filaments, the reconnection took place and flare emission in thermal and non-thermal energy ranges attained the maximum. The radio signatures revealed the opening of field lines resulting from reconnection. The H-alpha images and radio data provide the inflow speed leading to reconnection and the scale size of particle acceleration region. The first event produced a narrow and slow CME, whereas the later one was associated with a fast full halo CME. The halo CME signatures observed between Sun and Earth using white-light and scintillation images and in-situ measurements indicated the magnetic energy utilized in the expansion and propagation. The magnetic cloud signature at the Earth confirmed the flux rope ejected at the time of filament interaction and reconnection.

Three frontside full halo coronal mass ejections with a nontypical geomagnetic response

Forecasting potential geoeffectiveness of solar disturbances (in particular, of frontside full halo coronal mass ejections) is important for various practical purposes, e.g., for satellite operations, radio communications, global positioning system applications, power grid, and pipeline maintenance. We analyze three frontside full halo coronal mass ejections (CMEs) that occurred in the year 2000 (close to the activity maximum of solar cycle 23), together with associated solar and heliospheric phenomena as well as their impact on the Earth's magnetosphere. Even though all three were fast full halos (with plane of the sky speeds higher than 1100 km/s), the geomagnetic response was very different for each case. After analyzing the source regions of these halo CMEs, it was found that the halo associated with the strongest geomagnetic disturbance was the one that initiated farther away from disk center (source region at W66); while the other two CMEs originated closer to the central meridian but had weaker geomagnetic responses. Therefore, these three events do not fit into the general statistical trends that relate the location of the solar source and the corresponding geoeffectivity. We investigate possible causes of such a behavior. Nonradial direction of eruption, passage of the Earth through a leg of an interplanetary flux rope, and strong compression at the eastern flank of a propagating interplanetary CME during its interaction with the ambient solar wind are found to be important factors that have a direct influence on the resulting north‐south interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) component and thus on the CME geoeffectiveness. We also find indications that interaction of two CMEs could help in producing a long‐lasting southward IMF component. Finally, we are able to explain successfully the geomagnetic response using plasma and magnetic field in situ measurements at the L1 point. We discuss the implications of our results for operational space weather forecasting and stress the difficulties of making accurate predictions with the current knowledge and tools at hand.

GEOMETRICAL IMPLICATION OF THE CME EARTHWARD DIRECTION PARAMETER AND ITS COMPARISON WITH CONE MODEL PARAMETERS

Recently, we suggested a CME earthward direction parameter as an important geoeffective parameter that has been demonstrated by front-side halo CME data. In this study, we present the geometrical implication of this parameter by comparing with the parameters from a CME cone model. Major results from this study can be summarized as follows. First, we derive an analytic relationship between the cone model parameters (the half angular width of a cone and the angle between the cone axis and the plane of sky) and the earthward direction parameter. Second, we demonstrate a close relationship between the earthward direction parameter and the cone axis angle using 32 front-side full halo CMEs. Third, we found that there is noticeable inconsistency between the cone axis angles estimated from the cone model fitting to the CMEs and from their associated flare positions, implying that the flare position should not be considered as a good earthward direction parameter. Finally we present several advantages of our earthward direction parameter in terms of the forecast of a geomagnetic storm based on CME parameters.

Enhancement of solar wind low-energy energetic particles as precursor of geomagnetic disturbance in operational geomagnetic forecast

A study of the relationship between solar wind low-energy energetic particles using data from the Electron, Proton, and Alpha Monitor (EPAM) onboard the Advanced Compositional Explorer spacecraft (ACE) and geomagnetic activity using data from Canadian magnetic observatories in Canada’s polar cap, auroral zone, and subauroral zone was carried out for a period spanning 1997–2005. Full halo coronal mass ejections (CMEs) were used to gauge the initial particle enhancements and the subsequent geomagnetic activity. It was found that maximum geomagnetic activity is related to maximum particle enhancements in a non-linear fashion. Quadratic fit of the data results in expressions that can be easily used in an operational space weather setting to forecast geomagnetic disturbance quantitatively. A superposed epoch analysis shows increase in particle flux level starts hours before geomagnetic activity attains its peak, affirming the precursory nature of EPAM particles for the impending geomagnetic impact of CME. This can supplement the decision process in formulating geomagnetic warning after the launch of CME from the Sun but before the arrival of shock at Earth. The empirical relationships between solar wind low-energy energetic particles and geomagnetic activity revealed in this statistical study can be easily codified, and thus utilized in operational space weather forecast to appraise the geoeffectiveness of the CME and to provide a quantitative forecast for maximum geomagnetic activity in Canada’s polar cap, auroral zone, and subauroral zone after the occurrence of a CME.

Cosmic ray intensity during the passage of coronal mass ejections

Coronal Mass Ejections are vast structures of plasma and magnetic fields that are expelled from the sun into the heliosphere. This material is detected by remote sensing and in-situ spacecraft observations. The present study deals with the influence of four types of CMEs namely Asymmetric 'Full' Halo CMEs, Partial Halo CMEs, Asymmetric and Complex 'Full' Halo CMEs and 'Full' Halo CMEs on cosmic ray neutron monitor intensity. The data of ground based neutron monitor of Moscow and CME events observed with instruments onboard and Wind spacecraft have been used in the present analysis. The method of superposed epoch (Chree) analysis has been used to the arrival times of these CMEs. It is noteworthy that the frequency of occurrence of Asymmetric 'Full' Halo CMEs is significantly high, whereas frequency of occurrence of Asymmetric and Complex 'Full' Halo CMEs is low compared to other CMEs. Significant enhancement in cosmic ray intensity is observed after 4 days of the onset of asymmetric full halo and 6 days after the onset of full halo CMEs. The fluctuations in cosmic ray intensity are more prior to the onset of both types of the CMEs. However, during Partial Halo CMEs the cosmic ray intensity peaks, 8- 9 days prior to the onset of CMEs and depressed 3 days prior to the onset of CMEs, whereas in case of asymmetric and complex full CMEs, the intensity depressed 2 days prior to the onset of CMEs and enhanced 2 days after the onset of CMEs. The deviations in cosmic ray intensity are more pronounced in case for asymmetric and complex full halo CMEs compared to other CMEs.

Determining the full halo coronal mass ejection characteristics

AbstractIn this paper we determined the parameters of 45 full halo coronal mass ejections (HCMEs) for various modifications of their cone forms (“ice cream cone models”). We show that the CME determined characteristics depend significantly on the CME chosen form. We show that, regardless of the CME chosen form, the trajectory of practically all the considered HCMEs deviate from the radial direction to the Sun-to-Earth axis at the initial stage of their movement.

Radio‐Quiet Fast and Wide Coronal Mass Ejections

We report on the properties of radio-quiet (RQ) and radio-loud (RL) coronal mass ejections (CMEs) that are fast and wide (FW). RQ CMEs lack type II radio bursts in the metric and decameter-hectometric (DH) wavelengths. RL CMEs are associated with metric or DH type II bursts. We found that ~40% of the FW CMEs from 1996 to 2005 were RQ. The RQ CMEs had an average speed of 1117 km s−1 compared to 1438 km s−1 for the RL, bracketing the average speed of all FW CMEs (1303 km s−1). The fraction of full halo CMEs (apparent width = 360°) was the largest for the RL CMEs (60%), smallest for the RQ CMEs (16%), and intermediate for all FW CMEs (42%). The median soft X-ray flare size for the RQ CMEs (C6.9) was also smaller than that for the RL CMEs (M3.9). About 55% of RQ CMEs were back sided, while the front-sided ones originated close to the limb. The RL CMEs originated generally on the disk with only ~25% being back sided. The RQ FW CMEs suggest that the Alfven speed in the low-latitude outer corona can often exceed 1000 km s−1 and can vary over a factor of ≥3. None of the RQ CMEs was associated with large solar energetic particle events, which is useful information for space weather applications.

Inversion solutions of the elliptic cone model for disk frontside full halo coronal mass ejections

A new algorithm is developed for inverting six unknown elliptic cone model parameters from five observed CME halo parameters. It is shown that the halo parameter α includes the information on the coronal mass ejection (CME) propagation direction denoted by two model parameters. On the basis of the given halo parameter α, two approaches are presented to find out the CME propagation direction. The two‐point approach uses two values of α observed simultaneously by COR1 and COR2 on board STEREO A and B. The one‐point approach combines the value of α with such simultaneous observation as the location of CME‐associated flare, which includes the information associated with CME propagation direction. Model validation experiments show that the CME propagation direction can be accurately determined using the two‐point approach, and the other four model parameters can also be well inverted, especially when the projection angle is greater than 60°. The propagation direction and other four model parameters obtained using the one‐point approach for six disk frontside full halo CMEs appear to be acceptable, though the final conclusion on its validation should be made after STEREO data are available.

The Automatic Predictability of Super Geomagnetic Storms from halo CMEs associated with Large Solar Flares

We investigate the relationship between magnetic structures of coronal mass ejection (CME) source regions and geomagnetic storms, in particular, the super storms when the D st index decreases below −200 nT. By examining all full halo CMEs that erupted between 1996 and 2004, we selected 73 events associated with M-class and X-class solar flares, which have a clearly identifiable source region. By analyzing daily full-disk MDI magnetograms, we found that the horizontal gradient of the line-of-sight magnetic field is a viable parameter to identify a flaring magnetic neutral line and thus can be used to predict the possible source region of CMEs. The accuracy of this prediction is about 75%, especially for those associated with X-class flares (up to 89%). The mean orientation of the magnetic structures of source regions was derived and characterized by the orientation angle θ, which is defined to be ≤ 90∘ in the case of the southward orientation and ≥ 90∘, when the magnetic structure is northwardly oriented. The orientation angle was calculated as the median orientation angle of extrapolated field lines relative to the flaring neutral line. We report that for about 92% of super storms (12 out of 13 events) the orientation angle was found to be southward. In the case of intense and moderate storms (D st≥ −200 nT), the relationship is less pronounced (70%, 21 out of 30 events). Our findings demonstrate that the approach presented in this paper can be used to perform an automatic prediction of the occurrence of large X-class flares and super geomagnetic storms.