Full-field Swept-source Optical Coherence Tomography Research Articles

Unraveling the functional signals of rods and cones in the human retina: separation and analysis

In recent years, optoretinography has become an important functional imaging method for the retina, as light-evoked changes in the photoreceptors have been demonstrated for a large number of different OCT systems. Full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (FF-SS-OCT) is particularly phase-stable, and it is currently the only technique sensitive enough to detect the smaller functional changes in the inner plexiform layer (IPL). However, the resolution of state-of-the art FF-SS-OCT systems is not high enough to distinguish individual photoreceptors. This makes it difficult to separate rods from cones. In this work, we circumvent this problem by separating the functional changes in rods and cones by their different temporal dynamics to the same light stimulus. For this purpose, a mathematical model was developed that represents the measured signals as a superposition of two impulse responses. The developed model describes the measured data under different imaging conditions very well and is able to analyze the sensitivity and temporal dynamics of the two photoreceptor types separately.

Retinal blood flow imaging with combined full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography and laser Doppler holography.

Full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (FF-SS-OCT) and laser Doppler holography (LDH) are two holographic imaging techniques presenting unique capabilities for ophthalmology. We report on interlaced FF-SS-OCT and LDH imaging with a single instrument. Effectively, retinal blood flow and pulsation could be quasi-simultaneously monitored. This instrument holds potential for a wide scope of ophthalmic applications.

From digital holographic microscopy to optical coherence tomography – separate past and a common goal

In this paper we briefly present the history and outlook on the development of two seemingly distant techniques which may be brought close together with a unified theoretical model described as common k-space theory. This theory also known as the Fourier diffraction theorem is much less common in optical coherence tomography than its traditional mathematical model, but it has been extensively studied in digital holography and, more importantly, optical diffraction tomography. As demonstrated with several examples, this link is one of the important factors for future development of both techniques. Full Text: PDF ReferencesN. Leith, J. Upatnieks, "Reconstructed Wavefronts and Communication Theory", J. Opt. Soc. Am. 52(10), 1123 (1962). CrossRef Y. Park, C. Depeursinge, G. Popescu, "Quantitative phase imaging in biomedicine", Nat. Photonics 12, 578 (2018). CrossRef D. Huang et al., "Optical Coherence Tomography", Science 254(5035), 1178 (1991). CrossRef D. P. Popescu, C. Flueraru, S. 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Kak, "Reflection Mode Diffraction Tomography", Ultrason. Imag. 7, 300 (1985). CrossRef M. Sarmis et al., "High resolution reflection tomographic diffractive microscopy", J. Mod. Opt. 57(9), 740 (2010). CrossRef L. Foucault et al., "Versatile transmission/reflection tomographic diffractive microscopy approach", J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 36(11), C18 (2019). CrossRef W. Krauze, P. Ossowski, M. Nowakowski, M. Szkulmowski, M. Kujawińska, "Enhanced QPI functionality by combining OCT and ODT methods", Proc. SPIE 11653, 116530B (2021). CrossRef E. Mudry, P.C. Chaumet, K. Belkebir, G. Maire, A. Sentenac, "Mirror-assisted tomographic diffractive microscopy with isotropic resolution", Opt. Lett. 35(11), 1857 (2010). CrossRef P. Hosseini, Y. Sung, Y. Choi, N. Lue, Z. Yaqoob, P. So, "Scanning color optical tomography (SCOT)", Opt. Expr. 23(15), 19752 (2015). CrossRef J. Jung, K. Kim, J. Yoon, Y. Park, "Hyperspectral optical diffraction tomography", Opt. Expr. 24(3), 1881 (2016). CrossRef T. Zhang et al., Biomed. "Multi-wavelength multi-angle reflection tomography", Opt. Expr. 26(20), 26093 (2018). CrossRef R.A. Leitgeb, "En face optical coherence tomography: a technology review [Invited]", Biomed. Opt. Expr. 10(5), 2177 (2019). CrossRef J.F. de Boer, R. Leitgeb, M. Wojtkowski, "Twenty-five years of optical coherence tomography: the paradigm shift in sensitivity and speed provided by Fourier domain OCT [Invited]", Biomed. Opt. Expr. 8(7), 3248 (2017). CrossRef T. Anna, V. Srivastava, C. Shakher, "Transmission Mode Full-Field Swept-Source Optical Coherence Tomography for Simultaneous Amplitude and Quantitative Phase Imaging of Transparent Objects", IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 23(11), 899 (2011). CrossRef M.T. Rinehart, V. Jaedicke, A. Wax, "Quantitative phase microscopy with off-axis optical coherence tomography", Opt. Lett. 39(7), 1996 (2014). CrossRef C. Photiou, C. 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Simultaneous directional full-field OCT using path-length and carrier multiplexing.

Full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (FF-SS-OCT) is an emerging technology with potential applications in ophthalmic imaging, microscopy, metrology, and other domains. Here we demonstrate a novel method of multiplexing FF-SS-OCT signals using carrier modulation (CM). The principle of CM could be used to inspect various properties of the scattered light, e.g. its spectrum, polarization, Doppler shift, or distribution in the pupil. The last of these will be explored in this work, where CM was used to acquire images passing through two different optical pupils. The two pupils contained semicircular optical windows with perpendicular orientations, with each window permitting measurement of scattering anisotropy in one dimension by inducing an optical delay between the images formed by the two halves of the pupil. Together, the two forms of multiplexing permit measurement of differential scattering anisotropy in the x and y dimensions simultaneously. To demonstrate the feasibility of this technique our carrier multiplexed directional FF-OCT (CM-D-FF-OCT) system was used to acquire images of a microlens array, human hair, onion skin and in vivo human retina. The results of these studies are presented and briefly discussed in the context of future development and application of this technique.

Kilohertz retinal FF-SS-OCT and flood imaging with hardware-based adaptive optics.

A retinal imaging system was designed for full-field (FF) swept-source (SS) optical coherence tomography (OCT) with cellular resolution. The system incorporates a real-time adaptive optics (AO) subsystem and a very high-speed CMOS sensor, and is capable of acquiring volumetric images of the retina at rates up to 1 kHz. While digital aberration correction (DAC) is an attractive potential alternative to AO, it has not yet been shown to provide resolution allowing visualization of cones in the fovea, where early detection of functional deficits is most critical. Here we demonstrate that FF-SS-OCT with hardware AO permits resolution of foveal cones, imaged at eccentricities of 1° and 2°, with volume rates adequate to measure light-evoked changes in photoreceptors. With the reference arm blocked, the system can operate as a kilohertz AO flood illumination fundus camera with adjustable temporal coherence and is expected to allow measurement of light-evoked changes caused by common path interference in photoreceptor outer segments (OS). In this paper, we describe the system's optical design, characterize its performance, and demonstrate its ability to produce images of the human photoreceptor mosaic.

Full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography and neural tissue classification for deep brain imaging.

Optical coherence tomography can differentiate brain regions with intrinsic contrast and at a micron scale resolution. Such a device can be particularly useful as a real‐time neurosurgical guidance tool. We present, to our knowledge, the first full‐field swept‐source optical coherence tomography system operating near a wavelength of 1310 nm. The proof‐of‐concept system was integrated with an endoscopic probe tip, which is compatible with deep brain stimulation keyhole neurosurgery. Neuroimaging experiments were performed on ex vivo brain tissues and in vivo in rat brains. Using classification algorithms involving texture features and optical attenuation, images were successfully classified into three brain tissue types.

Simultaneous functional imaging of neuronal and photoreceptor layers in living human retina.

Functional retinal imaging, especially of neuronal activity non-invasively in humans, is of tremendous interest. Although the activation of photoreceptor cells (PRCs) could be detected in humans, imaging the function of other retinal neurons had been so far hardly possible. Here, using phase-sensitive full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (FF-SS-OCT), we show simultaneous imaging of the activation in the photoreceptor and ganglion cell layer/inner plexiform layer (GCL/IPL). The signals from the GCL/IPL are 10-fold smaller than those from the PRC and were detectable only using algorithms for suppression of motion artifacts and pulsatile blood flow in the retinal vessels. FF-SS-OCT with improved phase evaluation algorithms, therefore, allowed us to map functional connections between PRC and GCL/IPL, confirming previous ex vivo results. The demonstrated functional imaging of retinal neuronal layers can be a valuable tool in diagnostics and basic research.

Spatio-Temporal Optical Coherence Imaging – a new tool for in vivo microscopy

Optical Coherence Imaging (OCI) including Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and Optical Coherence Microscopy (OCM) uses interferometric detection to generate high-resolution volumetric images of the sample at high speeds. Such capabilities are significant for in vivo imaging, including ophthalmology, brain, intravascular imaging, as well as endoscopic examination. Instrumentation and software development allowed to create many clinical instruments. Nevertheless, most of OCI setups scan the incident light laterally. Hence, OCI can be further extended by wide-field illumination and detection. This approach, however, is very susceptible to the so-called crosstalk-generated noise. Here, we describe our novel approach to overcome this issue with spatio-temporal optical coherence manipulation (STOC), which employs spatial phase modulation of the incident light. Full Text: PDF ReferencesL. Wang, P. P. Ho, C. Liu, G. Zhang, and R. R. Alfano, "Ballistic 2-D Imaging Through Scattering Walls Using an Ultrafast Optical Kerr Gate", Science 253, 769-771 (1991). CrossRef D. Huang, E. A. Swanson, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, W. G. Stinson, W. Chang, M. R. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. A. Puliafito, and et al., "Optical coherence tomography", Science 254, 1178-1181 (1991). CrossRef J. A. Izatt, E. A. Swanson, J. G. Fujimoto, M. R. Hee, and G. M. Owen, "Optical coherence microscopy in scattering media", Opt. Lett. 19, 590-592 (1994). CrossRef D. Borycki, M. Nowakowski, and M. Wojtkowski, "Control of the optical field coherence by spatiotemporal light modulation", Opt. Lett. 38, 4817-4820 (2013). CrossRef D. Borycki, M. Hamkalo, M. Nowakowski, M. Szkulmowski, and M. Wojtkowski, "Spatiotemporal optical coherence (STOC) manipulation suppresses coherent cross-talk in full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography", Biomed. Opt. Express 10, 2032-2054 (2019). CrossRef P. Stremplewski, E. Auksorius, P. Wnuk, L. Kozon, P. Garstecki, and M. Wojtkowski, "In vivo volumetric imaging by crosstalk-free full-field OCT", Optica 6, 608-617 (2019). CrossRef L. Vabre, A. Dubois, and A. C. Boccara, "Thermal-light full-field optical coherence tomography", Opt. Lett. 27, 530-532 (2002). CrossRef M. Laubscher, M. Ducros, B. Karamata, T. Lasser, and R. Salathé, "Video-rate three-dimensional optical coherence tomography", Opt. Express 10, 429-435 (2002). CrossRef Dubois and A. C. Boccara, Full-Field Optical Coherence Tomography, (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2008), pp. 565-591. CrossRef O. Thouvenin, K. Grieve, P. Xiao, C. Apelian, and A. C. Boccara, "En face coherence microscopy [Invited]", Biomedical Opt. Express 8, 622-639 (2017). CrossRef F. Fercher, C. K. Hitzenberger, M. Sticker, E. Moreno-Barriuso, R. Leitgeb, W. Drexler, and H. Sattmann, "A thermal light source technique for optical coherence tomography", Optics Commun. 185, 57-64 (2000). CrossRef R. A. Leitgeb, "En face optical coherence tomography: a technology review [Invited]", Biomed Opt Express 10, 2177-2201 (2019). CrossRef J. Fujimoto and W. Drexler, Introduction to Optical Coherence Tomography, (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2008), pp. 1-45. CrossRef J. A. Izatt, M. A. Choma, and A.-H. Dhalla, Theory of Optical Coherence Tomography, (Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2015), pp. 65-94. CrossRef

Spatiotemporal optical coherence (STOC) manipulation suppresses coherent cross-talk in full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography.

Full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (FF-SS-OCT) provides high-resolution depth-resolved images of the sample by parallel Fourier-domain interferometric detection. Although FF-SS-OCT implements high-speed volumetric imaging, it suffers from the cross-talk-generated noise from spatially coherent lasers. This noise reduces the transversal image resolution, which in turn, limits the wide adaptation of FF-SS-OCT for practical and clinical applications. Here, we introduce the novel spatiotemporal optical coherence (STOC) manipulation. In STOC the time-varying inhomogeneous phase masks are used to modulate the light incident on the sample. By properly adjusting these phase masks, the spatial coherence can be reduced. Consequently, the cross-talk-generated noise is suppressed, the transversal image resolution is improved by the factor of , and sample features become visible. STOC approach is validated by imaging 1951 USAF resolution test chart covered by the diffuser, scattering phantom and the rat skin ex vivo. In all these cases STOC suppresses the cross-talk-generated noise, and importantly, do not compromise the transversal resolution. Thus, our method provides an enhancement of FF-SS-OCT that can be beneficial for imaging biological samples.

Interferometric detection of 3D motion using computational subapertures in optical coherence tomography.

Doppler optical coherence tomography (OCT) quantifies axial motion with high precision, whereas lateral motion cannot be detected by a mere evaluation of phase changes. This problem was solved by the introduction of three-beam Doppler OCT, which, however, entails a high experimental effort. Here, we present the numerical analogue to this experimental approach. Phase-stable complex-valued OCT datasets, recorded with full-field swept-source OCT, are filtered in the Fourier domain to limit imaging to different computational subapertures. These are used to calculate all three components of the motion vector with interferometric precision. As known from conventional Doppler OCT for axial motion only, the achievable accuracy exceeds the actual imaging resolution by orders of magnitude in all three dimensions. The feasibility of this method is first demonstrated by quantifying micro-rotation of a scattering sample. Subsequently, a potential application is explored by recording the 3D motion vector field of tissue during laser photocoagulation in ex-vivo porcine retina.

Reduction of frame rate in full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography by numerical motion correction [Invited

Full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (FF-SS-OCT) was recently shown to allow new and exciting applications for imaging the human eye that were previously not possible using current scanning OCT systems. However, especially when using cameras that do not acquire data with hundreds of kHz frame rate, uncorrected phase errors due to axial motion of the eye lead to a drastic loss in image quality of the reconstructed volumes. Here we first give a short overview of recent advances in techniques and applications of parallelized OCT and finally present an iterative and statistical algorithm that estimates and corrects motion-induced phase errors in the FF-SS-OCT data. The presented algorithm is in many aspects adopted from the phase gradient autofocus (PGA) method, which is frequently used in synthetic aperture radar (SAR). Following this approach, the available phase errors can be estimated based on the image information that remains in the data, and no parametrization with few degrees of freedom is required. Consequently, the algorithm is capable of compensating even strong motion artifacts. Efficacy of the algorithm was tested on simulated data with motion containing varying frequency components. We show that even in strongly blurred data, the actual image information remains intact, and the algorithm can identify the phase error and correct it. Furthermore, we use the algorithm to compensate real phase error in FF-SS-OCT imaging of the human retina. Acquisition rates can be reduced by a factor of three (from 60 to 20 kHz frame rate) with an image quality that is even higher compared to uncorrected volumes recorded at the maximum acquisition rate. The presented algorithm for axial motion correction decreases the high requirements on the camera frame rate and thus brings FF-SS-OCT closer to clinical applications.

Imaging pulse wave propagation in human retinal vessels using full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography.

We demonstrate a new noninvasive method to assess biomechanical properties of the retinal vascular system. Phase-sensitive full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (PhS-FF-SS-OCT) is used to investigate retinal vascular dynamics at unprecedented temporal resolution. The motion of retinal tissue that is induced by expansion of the vessels therein is measured with an accuracy of about 10 nm. The pulse shapes of arterial and venous pulsations, their temporal delays, as well as the frequency-dependent pulse propagation through the capillary bed, are determined. For the first time, imaging speed and motion sensitivity are sufficient for a direct measurement of pulse waves propagating with more than 600 mm/s in retinal vessels of a healthy young subject.

Full-Field Swept Source Master-Slave Optical Coherence Tomography

We apply the principle of master-slave (MS) interferometry to a full-field swept source optical coherence tomography (OCT) setup equipped with a fast 2-D camera. MS interferometry does not involve Fourier transformations and, therefore, eliminates the need for spectrum data resampling required by the conventional spectral domain OCT. Using this method in a full-field OCT setup, en face images are acquired in vivo from finger skin, Drosophila melanogaster larvae, and pupae, with no spectrum resampling and no mechanical scanning. The signal processing is based on a comparison operation of the shapes of channeled spectra for each camera pixel, with a set of reference signals (masks). In this way, en face OCT images can be obtained with no need for the volumetric assembly and software cutting the en face images from an image volume, which are required by the conventional spectral domain OCT method. We demonstrate that the sensitivity and axial resolution of the MS method in a full-field swept source OCT setup are similar to the values obtained using the conventional Fourier-transformation-based swept source OCT method in a full-field setup. Multiple en face images can be produced in parallel by using multiple stored shapes of channeled spectra for the depths of interest. The full-field MS-OCT method presented here opens the possibility of parallel processing for all image points in a 3-D volume of the object.

Three-dimensional shape measurement of micro-lens arrays using full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography

We report three-dimensional (3D) shape measurement of refracting samples using full field swept-source optical coherence tomographic (FF-SS-OCT) system. The optical arrangement of FF-SS-OCT consists of a swept-source system containing super-luminescent diode as low coherence light source and an acousto-optic tunable filter as electronically controlled frequency tuning device, a compact Michelson interferometer and an area detector. Refracting samples, such as, cylindrical lens and micro-lens arrays were used as object. By means of sweeping the frequency of the light source, multiple interferograms were recorded and both amplitude and phase map of the interference fringe signal were then reconstructed. Experimental results of optically sectioned images (tomography) of the cylindrical lens and micro-lens arrays obtained by means of selective Fourier filtering and 3D-surface profile retrieved from the phase-map are demonstrated. The proposed system does not require any mechanical scanning. In addition, a common optical path enables this proposed technique to be highly stable.

Scientific and Engineering Applications of Full-field Swept-source Optical Coherence Tomography

We report the development of full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) in the wavelength range of 815-870 nm using a unique combination of super-luminescent diode (SLD) as broad-band light source and acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) as a frequency-scanning device. Some new applications of full-field SS-OCT in forensic sciences and engineering materials have been demonstrated. Results of simultaneous topography and tomography of latent fingerprints, silicon microelectronic circuits and composite materials are presented. The main advantages of the present system are completely non-mechanical scanning, wide-field, compact and low-cost.

Simultaneous tomography and topography of silicon integrated circuits using full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography

We demonstrate simultaneous tomography and topography of micro-electro-mechanical systems based on silicon integrated circuits using full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography. The optical set-up consists of a swept-source system, a compact Michelson interferometer, and an area detector. The swept-source system comprises a superluminescent diode as a broadband light source in conjunction with an acousto-optic tunable filter as a fast frequency tuning device. By means of sweeping the frequency of the light source, multiple interferograms were recorded and both the amplitude and the phase map of the interference fringe signal were reconstructed. Optically sectioned images of the silicon integrated circuits were obtained by selective Fourier filtering and the topography was retrieved from the phase map. The main advantages of the proposed system are completely non-mechanical scanning, ease of alignment, high stability because of its nearly common-path geometry, and compactness.

Simultaneous topography and tomography of latent fingerprints using full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography

We demonstrate simultaneous topography and tomography of latent fingerprints using full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT). The swept-source OCT system comprises a superluminescent diode (SLD) as broad-band light source, an acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) as frequency tuning device, and a compact, nearly common-path interferometer. Both the amplitude and the phase map of the interference fringe signal are reconstructed. Optical sectioning of the latent fingerprint sample is obtained by selective Fourier filtering and the topography is retrieved from the phase map. Interferometry, selective filtering, low coherence and hence better resolution are some of the advantages of the proposed system over the conventional fingerprint detection techniques. The present technique is non-invasive in nature and does not require any physical or chemical processing. Therefore, the quality of the sample does not alter and hence the same fingerprint can be used for other types of forensic test. Exploitation of low-coherence interferometry for fingerprint detection itself provides an edge over other existing techniques as fingerprints can even be lifted from low-reflecting surfaces. The proposed system is very economical and compact.

Fingerprint detection using full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography

We report the application of full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography for fingerprint detection. This system consists of a superluminescent diode as broadband light source and an acousto-optic tunable filter as wavelength-tuning device. The conventional optical coherence tomographic system was modified by coating aluminum oxide on one side of the beam splitter which is used as reference mirror and fingerprints on the glass slide as object. Low-coherence interferometry, nonmechanical scanning, and compactness are the main advantages of the proposed system over conventional fingerprint detection techniques. The present technique is noninvasive in nature and does not require any physical or chemical processing.