Fruits Of Plant Species Research Articles

Frugivory-related traits promote speciation of tropical palms.

Animal-mediated seed dispersal by frugivorous birds and mammals is central to the ecology and functioning of ecosystems, but whether and how frugivory-related traits have affected plant speciation remains little explored. Fruit size is directly linked to plant dispersal capacity and therefore influences gene flow and genetic divergence of plant populations. Using a global species-level phylogeny with comprehensive data on fruit sizes and plant species distributions, we test whether fruit size has affected speciation rates of palms (Arecaceae), a plant family characteristic of tropical rainforests. Globally, the results reveal that palms with small fruit sizes have increased speciation rates compared with those with large (megafaunal) fruits. Speciation of small-fruited palms is particularly high in the understory of tropical rainforests in the New World, and on islands in the Old World. This suggests that frugivory-related traits in combination with geography and the movement behaviour of frugivores can influence the speciation of fleshy-fruited plants.

The role of trait combination in the conspicuousness of fruit display among bird‐dispersed plants

Summary In visually driven seed dispersal mutualisms, natural selection should promote plant strategies that maximize fruit visibility to dispersers. Plants might increase seed dispersal profitability by increasing conspicuousness of fruit display, understood as a plant strategy to maximize fruit detectability by seed dispersers. The role of different plant traits in fruit choice and consumption by seed dispersers has been broadly studied. However, there is no clear evidence about the importance of the traits that increase conspicuousness of fruit display. Because strategies to maximize conspicuousness of fruit display are diverse, and usually are expected to be costly, we would expect that individual plant species will produce an efficient combination of traits. We explored this prediction with 62 fleshy fruited plant species of a subtropical Andean forest (Southern Yungas), and using a large dataset of fruit consumption by birds (4476 records). Conspicuousness of fruit display was characterized by both fruit and plant traits including chromatic contrast, size, exposure, aggregation and crop size of fruits. We also considered phylogenetic effects on phenotypic variation. Fruit consumption was explained by fruit chromatic contrast depending on fruit crop size. These traits revealed low phylogenetic effects, with the exception of four plant clades at different levels in the phylogenetic tree. Negative correlations between pairs of traits support our assumption that fruit display traits are costly, suggesting natural selection favours parsimonious evolutionary pathways. Plant species seem to rely on conspicuousness of fruit display by a combination of traits that might minimize costs of fruit display. This appears adaptively relevant to improve communication with mutualistic animals, to increase fruit consumption in a community context and, ultimately, to enhance the profitability of seed dispersal. A lay summary is available for this article.

Fruit Diversity for Agrotourism Development in Rawa Bayu, Bayu Village, Songgon, Banyuwangi

Rural area in around Rawa Bayu tourism object has numerous fruit trees species which is possible to be integrated in the development of nature based tourism in Rawa Bayu. The aims of the study were describing the diversity of fruit species, mapping geographic positions of fruits plants grows, and exploring the local perspective about fruit plants species in its relationship with agrotourism development. Research methods consisted of fruit plant species exploration in Rawa Bayu ecotourism and its surrounding area, mapping the coordinates geographic using GPS (Global Positioning System), and implementing semi structured interviews with local respondends. Exploration was done by visiting Rawa Bayu ecotourism and its surrounding area, especially local people’s yard. The fruit plant species was observed morphologically. The geographic position of fruit plant species was mapped using GPS. Semi structured interviews were implemented to 20 respondents, they are consist of locall community, tourist and local tourist in Rawa Bayu. Data was analized descriptively. This research found about 13 fruit plant species grows in Rawa Bayu area. Fruit plant species were potential for rural tourism development program. The most common fruit plant species found were durian ( Durio zibethinus ), salacca ( Salacca zalacca ), banana ( Musa sp.), guava ( Syzygium aqueum ), jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus ), jengkol ( Archidendron pauciflorum ), langsat ( Lansium domesticum ), clove ( Syzigium aromaticum ), mangosteen ( Garcinia mangostana ), and avocado ( Persea americana ). Residents around Rawa Bayu ecotourism wishes the region became fruit agrotourism area to improve the people's economy. Keywords: agrotourism, Banyuwangi, fruit conservation, tourist attractions.

Effects of frugivorous birds on seed retention time and germination in Xishuangbanna, southwest China.

The dispersal of many plants depends on transportation by birds as seed dispersers. The birds play an important role in long distance seed dispersal and may also affect seed germination. However, for plants who have many bird dispersers, the influence of dominant and non-dominant dispersers on retention time (dispersal distance) and germination remains poorly understood. In this study, we performed experiments with captive frugivorous birds and fruiting plant species to study the effects of dominant and non-dominant dispersers on seed retention time (SRT) and germination (seed germination percentage and germination speed). Our study showed a great interspecific variation in the effects of frugivorous birds on both SRT and germination. Some birds enhance the germination of a given plant species, but others do not. Generally, the dominant visitors improved the seed germination and performed longer seed retention time.

Nutrients in fruits as determinants of resource tracking by birds

Fruit pulp is an important source of nutrients for many bird species. Fruit‐eating birds use a variety of strategies to cope with changes in the availability of fruits, exhibiting a remarkable ability to track resources. We assessed the role of nutrient availability in the fruiting environment as a factor driving resource tracking by fruit‐eating birds. Fruit consumption by the four most common frugivorous species in a 6‐ha plot in the Southern Yungas montane forest of Argentina was assessed. We determined the content of selected nutrients (soluble carbohydrates, proteins, phenols, ascorbic acid and essential minerals) in 22 fruiting plant species eaten by birds, and measured fruit–frugivore interactions and the availability of nutrients and dry fruit pulp mass over 2 years. There was strong temporal covariation in the availability of the selected nutrients in fruits across the study period. Similarly, the availability of nutrients in the fruiting environment covaried with pulp mass. Fruit consumption by the four commonest bird species and the abundance of most species were positively associated with nutrient availability and dry pulp mass. Nutrient availability was a good predictor of temporal fruit tracking by three of the four commonest frugivores. Despite large differences in particular nutrient concentrations in fruits, overall nutrient (and pulp) quantity in the fruiting environment played a greater role in fruit tracking than did the nutritional quality of individual fruits. While overall nutrient availability (i.e. across fruit) and total pulp mass were important determinants of fruit tracking, we suggest that plant species‐specific differences in fruit nutrient concentration may be important in short‐term foraging decisions involved in fruit choice and nutritional balance of birds.

Fruit Plants Species along Corridor in Kopendukuh Village as a Resource for Rural Tourism Development

This research aims to identify fruit plants species which is potential for tourism attraction, spatially describes fruit plants distribution and identify local people’s response for fruit plants as tourims attraction in Kopendukuh village, Banyuwangi. Survey was done along the villages corridors. The fruit plant species along corridors was identified and mapped using GPS. Furthermore, semi-structural interview was used to gain informations of local people response about fruit plants as tourism attraction. There were about 18 species and 162 individuals were found along corridor of Kopendukuh village. Fruit plants always found in local home gardens along rural corridor. Local peoples argue that fruit planst s important for numerous purposes. Local people support tourism development in rural area which based on the fruit plants richness (i.e. agrotourism). Keywords: fruit plants, mapping, corridor, rural tourism.

Variation in neighbourhood context shapes frugivore‐mediated facilitation and competition among co‐dispersed plant species

Summary Co‐occurring and simultaneously fruiting plant species may either compete for dispersal by shared frugivores or enhance each other's dispersal through joint attraction of frugivores. While competitive plant–plant interactions are expected to cause the evolutionary divergence of fruit phenologies, facilitative interactions are assumed to promote their convergence. To which extent competitive and facilitative interactions among plant species with similar phenological niches are controlled by spatial variation in their local abundance and co‐occurrence is poorly understood. Here, we test the hypotheses that when a plant species fruits in high densities, large phenological overlap with other plant species causes competition for seed dispersers owing to frugivore satiation. Conversely, we expect large phenological overlap to enhance the dispersal of a plant species fruiting in low densities through attraction of frugivores by other species in its local neighbourhood. We test these predictions on plant–frugivore networks based on seed removal from 15 woody, fleshy‐fruited plant species by 30 avian and 4 mammalian frugivore species across 13 study sites in Białowieża Forest, Poland. A null model indicated that fruit phenologies of the regional plant assemblage were more differentiated than expected by chance. In the local networks, the tendency of plants to share frugivores increased with phenological overlap. High phenological overlap reduced the seed removal rates, interaction strength (proportion of interactions) and the number of partners of plant species fruiting in high densities. Conversely, plant species fruiting in low densities mainly profited from high phenological overlap with other species. Importantly, the sharing of mutualistic partners among co‐fruiting plant species was also reflected in their co‐occurrence. Synthesis. Our study highlights that, in spite of the overall signal of competition, frugivore‐mediated interactions among cofruiting plant species may consistently promote the establishment and persistence of rare species through facilitation. In addition, our results suggest that, among other factors, indirect coupling of species through shared mutualistic partners might be an important determinant of plant community assembly. The coupling through shared mutualists may cause the formation of associations among co‐dispersed plant species and might contribute to the coexistence of species in plant–animal mutualistic communities.

Assessment of Mycorrhizal Frequency in the Roots of Fruit Plants Using Different Dyes

The aim of the experimental work was to optimize the previously used Phillips and Hayman (1970) method of staining roots for microscopic assessment of mycorrhizal frequency in the root material. The materials used in the experiment were the roots of strawberry plants of the cultivar “Elsanta” obtained in a greenhouse experiment in May 2012. Morphological features of the roots were assessed using a root scanner, and then attempts were made to stain the roots in four types of dyes: 0.01% methylene blue, 0.01% acridine orange, 0.01% malachite green, and 0.01% carbol fuchsin. A comparative microscopic assessment was made of the effects of staining with the four types of dyes the structures of mycorrhizal fungi formed in strawberry roots. Mycorrhizal frequency (F%) in the stained root samples was also compared. Next, the usefulness of these dyes for staining the roots of other fruit plant species, such as apple, sweet cherry, blackcurrant and sour cherry, was evaluated. It was concluded that the staining of roots at a temperature of up to 65&#176C did not cause tissue breakdown, and that the clearing time used—20 to 30 minutes, and the use of carbol fuchsin were found to be the most effective combinations in achieving good quality microscopic images. During microscopic examinations, a satisfactory contrast was noted between root tissues and the structures of mycorrhizal fungi. The use of carbol fuchsin for staining roots also helped to expose a greater number of fungal structures and obtain higher values of mycorrhizal frequency in the roots of strawberries, blackcurrants, sour cherries, sweet cherries and apples, in comparison with other dyes tested. The newly developed method of staining roots with carbol fuchsin, compared with the method used previously (Phillips and Hayman, 1970), is both less time consuming and less labour intensive.

Traditional Knowledge and Practices Related to Genus Citrus, Garcinia, Mangifera and Nephelium in Malaysia

Asia holds massive fruit diversity. Many nutritional and functional properties studies have been done on the fruit species. However, not many studies were done on other aspects of knowledge that can be gained related to these species. The aim of this study was to identify the various uses of the tropical fruit plant species from the genus of Citrus, Garcinia, Mangifera and Nephelium, based on the traditional knowledge and practices of the local communities. The study was conducted through direct interviews with 109 respondents from six areas and communities, targeting the genus Citrus, Mangifera, Nephelium and Garcinia. A total of 18 fruit species were recorded and were categorized into five different purposes, namely for 1) food, 2) medicinal purpose, 3) culture, 4) good practice and 5) other usage. Most of the traditional knowledge related to the fruit species used was as food, food additives or processing method (54.6%). All species except Citrus spp. and Mangifera laurina have information on traditional knowledge related to food. The highest number of species was recorded from the community of Sibuti, with a total of 14 species recorded while least number was recorded from the community of Bukit Gantang with a total of 4 species. The average number of species and respondents recorded from each community was 8.5 species and 18 respondents. The two most frequently cited species were found to be regional specific knowledge. The most cited species was Mangifera pajang which is endemic to Borneo, while Garcinia atroviridis which recorded the second highest citation was only found in Peninsular Malaysia. Documentation of traditional knowledge is a good tool, not just for the conservation of traditional knowledge from being extinct and forgotten, but also to identify new potential, ideas and possibilities from it, so that it opens up to many other scientific studies.

Biology, Ecology, and Management of Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys Stal, is an invasive, herbivorous insect species that was accidentally introduced to the United States from Asia. First discovered in Allentown, PA, in 1996, H. halys has now been reported from at least 40 states in the United States. Additional invasions have been detected in Canada, Switzerland, France, Germany, Italy, and Lichtenstein, suggesting this invasive species could emerge as a cosmopolitan pest species. In its native range, H. halys is classified as an outbreak pest; however, in North America, H. halys has become a major agricultural pest across a wide range of commodities. H. halys is a generalist herbivore, capable of consuming >100 different species of host plants, often resulting in substantial economic damage; its feeding damage resulted in US$37 million of losses in apple in 2010, but this stink bug species also attacks other fruit, vegetable, field crop, and ornamental plant species. H. halys has disrupted integrated pest management programs for multiple cropping systems. Pesticide applications, including broad-spectrum insecticides, have increased in response to H. halys infestations, potentially negatively influencing populations of beneficial arthropods and increasing secondary pest outbreaks. H. halys is also challenging because it affects homeowners as a nuisance pest; the bug tends to overwinter in homes and outbuildings. Although more research is required to better understand the ecology and biology of H. halys , we present its life history, host plant damage, and the management options available for this invasive pest species.

ESPÉCIES NATIVAS DE PLANTAS FRUTÍFERAS EM UMA ÁREA DE CERRADO EM MATO GROSSO, BRASIL

The Cerrado is the second largest biome consists of savannas, woodlands, grasslands and riverine forests with more than 7,000 plant species, in which 44% are endemic. The aim of this study was to identify the species of fruit plants of Cerrado in the Sao Vicente Campus and its potential use for food, medicine and other types. The campus is located at 15°49’S and 55°25’O, distant 86 km from Cuiaba/MT. Data was obtained between May and June 2010 with location and identification of fruit plants in the area called Agri3. 184 individuals belonging to 20 species and 14 families were found. The aculeata Acrocomia and Anacardium humile species were 48 and 47 individuals, respectively. While the species Mouriri elliptica, Brosimum gaudichaudii, American Genipa, Talisia esculenta and Vitex montevidensis showed only 01 individuals each. Of the 20 species, 07 have been used for food, medical and other uses, while 01 showed only food and medicinal uses, and 05 have only 05 food use. The vegetation is a key feature for human consumption, as well as its commercial exploitation can promote socioeconomic development through wages or planting species extraction that can result in public policies for species conservation.

Malaysian Species of Plants with Edible Fruits or Seeds and Their Valuation

This article compiles species of fruit plants in Malaysia that can be used as a reference in environmental impact assessment and conservation of fruit plants in Malaysia. A total of 520 species of plants that produce edible fruits or seeds in Malaysia were retrieved from the literature. These plants are broadly grouped into trees (355 species) and non-trees (165 species). Their economic and cultivation status along with the habit of fruit plant species were determined through literature searches and verified through semi-structured interviews with orchard and home garden owners and fruit market inspection throughout the country. In terms of economic status, the tree species were distributed into three categories: major (70 species), medium (93 species), and minor (192 species). Non-tree species of fruit plants in Malaysia were grouped into herbs (43 species), shrubs (40 species), woody climbers (40 species), herbaceous climbers (36 species), liana or shrub (3 species), aquatic herbs (2 species), and bush or climber (1 species). The overall total number of exclusively wild, wild or planted, and exclusively planted species were 229 (44.0%), 129 (24.8%), and 162 (31.15%), respectively. This study provides a framework for the valuation of species of plants that produce edible fruits or seeds in Malaysia.

Seasonal differences in foraging dynamics, habitat use and home range size of Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat in an urban environment

Urbanization through the process of habitat loss and fragmentation affects ecosystems. Many species are no longer able to survive in these urban areas; however, there are some that have been able to persist and even thrive in these habitats. One such species is Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus wahlbergi). Little is known about its existence in urban areas. Consequently we studied their seasonal variation in home range size, movements and foraging dynamics in the urban environment of Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. In a pilot study in summer, adult fruit bats (n = 8) were caught, fitted with radio-transmitters, and their movements followed for 12 nights and days. Although their movements varied considerably, no bats left the urban environment. Some of the larger distances covered in a single night were 2 and 5 km. In winter, an additional ten adult fruit bats were caught and fitted with radio-transmitters. Movements were followed for three weeks during winter and spring respectively. Winter home range size was greater than spring home range size. During winter the bats fed mostly on syringa fruits (Melia azedarach), an alien invasive, while their diet in spring was more varied and included species of indigenous and exotic fruits. The reduced variety of fruit eaten in winter may be explained by a reduction in fruiting plant species, and thus a reliance on a few species to meet their dietary requirements. The bats would have a role in seed dispersal but therein lies the problem of them also dispersing invasive plants. Further research is needed to assess the role played by exotic and alien plant species in the continued success of urban wildlife, in particular fruit bats. The seasonal variation in home range size gives insight into the urban movements of Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bats. The use of exotic and invasive plants by these bats is also significant.

Seasonal Differences in Foraging Dynamics, Habitat Use and Home Range Size of Wahlberg's Epauletted Fruit Bat in an Urban Environment

Urbanization through the process of habitat loss and fragmentation affects ecosystems. Many species are no longer able to survive in these urban areas; however, there are some that have been able to persist and even thrive in these habitats. One such species is Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus wahlbergi). Little is known about its existence in urban areas. Consequently we studied their seasonal variation in home range size, movements and foraging dynamics in the urban environment of Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. In a pilot study in summer, adult fruit bats (n = 8) were caught, fitted with radio-transmitters, and their movements followed for 12 nights and days. Although their movements varied considerably, no bats left the urban environment. Some of the larger distances covered in a single night were 2 and 5 km. In winter, an additional ten adult fruit bats were caught and fitted with radio-transmitters. Movements were followed for three weeks during winter and spring respectively. Winter home range size was greater than spring home range size. During winter the bats fed mostly on syringa fruits (Melia azedarach), an alien invasive, while their diet in spring was more varied and included species of indigenous and exotic fruits. The reduced variety of fruit eaten in winter may be explained by a reduction in fruiting plant species, and thus a reliance on a few species to meet their dietary requirements. The bats would have a role in seed dispersal but therein lies the problem of them also dispersing invasive plants. Further research is needed to assess the role played by exotic and alien plant species in the continued success of urban wildlife, in particular fruit bats. The seasonal variation in home range size gives insight into the urban movements of Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bats. The use of exotic and invasive plants by these bats is also significant.

Comparative ecology of bird-pollinated and bird-dispersed New Zealand plants

I observed birds forage for flowers and fruits for six consecutive years in a North Island forest to compare patterns in nectivory and frugivory in plants that rely on birds for both mutualistic services. Birds visited fewer flowering plant species (n=9) than fleshy fruited plant species (n=23). Four ‘bird plant’ species were identified (i.e., plant species that are co-dependent on birds for both pollination and seed dispersal). Visitation rates to flowers produced by bird plants were correlated with visitation rates to fruits, indicating that if a bird plant relied heavily on a particular bird species to visit its flowers, it tended to rely on the same bird species to visit its fruits. Coupled rates nectivory and frugivory raises a significant conservation concern, as it indicates that the loss of specific bird species may have a two-fold, negative effect on the reproductive fitness of plants that rely on birds for both pollination and seed dispersal.

Response of raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) on soil mulching and foliar nutrition with manganese

Raspberry is one of the most important species of fruit plants in Poland. The consumer usefulness and processing of fruits determined the taste and chemical composition. The raspberry fruits contain many valuable and important for human health ingredients. Furthermore the raspberries have a very high value of beekeeping. The main determinants of achieving a high yield and high biological value are a good supply of plant in the macro- and micronutrients and properly prepared soil.The aim of the study was to determine the response of raspberry on the soil mulching and foliar nutrition with manganese. In the study were included the following factors: I) type of bedding: black foil, black agri-woven, pine bark, wheat straw, soil without bedding – control; II) foliar nutrition with manganese and without foliar nutrition. Yield of fruits, weight of 100 fruits, length of shoots, fruiting terms and the number of harvests were specified. It was found that the soil bedding in the raspberries rows had no significant effect on the plant yielding, weight of fruits, length of shoots and the number of harvests. Foliar nutrition with manganese had a significant negative impact on the yield of raspberry fruits and their mass. While the foliar nutrition of plants had a significantly positive impact on the growth of raspberry shoots.

The hetero-association of caffeine with 5-caffeoylquinic acid and ethidium bromide

-cinnamic acid with (-)quinic acid)are bioactive compounds naturally available in leaves,seeds and fruits of plant species [1]. The most commonsources of CA are coffee beans, coca beans, cola nutsand tea leaves [2]; CQA is found in potatoes, coffeebeans, tobacco and wine [3]. The molecules of CA caninteract with each other in aqueous media and theseassociations have reported using various techniques suchas UV–vis spectrophotometry, FT-IR and NMR [4–10].The molecules of CA are aggregated in aqueous solutionby plane-to-plane stacking [11–13] and these kind ofstacking interactions are usually important in connexionwith the pharmacological action of caffeine and theinteraction between CA and nucleic acids. CA alsointeracts with polyphenols [14] and aromatic hydroxyacids such as methyl gallate, 3-nitrobenzic acid [15], 5-chlorosalicylic acid [16], pyrogallol [17], catechins [18],theaflavin [19], gallic acid and quercitin [20].The equilibrium constant for the complexation of CAwith the major polyphenolic constitutents of green coffeebeans were initially determined in aqueous solution by thespectrophotometry [21]. By a similar method otherresearchers also reported the complexation of CA and otherpurine alkaloids with chlorogenate compounds [22]. Yetothers described the 1:1 caffeine:chlorogenate complexationusing nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [23],determining the association constant and identifying thechlorogenate ion moiety involved in the complexformation. Further, they also proposed that the plane ofthe caffeine molecule is parallel to the plane of thearomatic ring of the caffeoyl ester group and that the five-and six-membered rings of the nitrogen heterocycle areequally involved in the complex formation. Apart from theabove-mentioned studies, recently there were reports onthe complexation of caffeine with 3-caffeoylquinic acidand the caffeine–chlorogenate complex in a freshlyprepared coffee brew by high resolution

Habitat Characteristics of Forest Fragments Determine Specialisation of Plant-Frugivore Networks in a Mosaic Forest Landscape

Plant-frugivore networks play a key role in the regeneration of sub-tropical forest ecosystems. However, information about the impact of habitat characteristics on plant-frugivore networks in fragmented forests is scarce. We investigated the importance of fruit abundance, fruiting plant species richness and canopy cover within habitat fragments for the structure and robustness of plant-frugivore networks in a mosaic forest landscape of South Africa. In total, 53 avian species were involved in fruit removal of 31 fleshy-fruiting plant species. Species specialisation was always higher for plants than for frugivores. Both species and network-level specialisation increased with increasing fruit abundance and decreased with increasing fruiting plant species richness and canopy cover within fragments. Interaction diversity was unaffected by fruit abundance and canopy cover, but increased slightly with increasing fruiting plant species richness. These findings suggest that especially the availability of resources is an important determinant of the structure of plant-frugivore networks in a fragmented forest landscape.

Simultaneous tests of the preference-performance and phylogenetic conservatism hypotheses: is either theory useful?

The preference-performance and phylogenetic conservatism hypotheses have been postulated to explain the mechanisms driving host-use patterns of phytophagous insects. The preference-performance hypothesis predicts that insects will use plants that provide higher offspring fit- ness, while the phylogenetic conservatism hypothesis pre- dicts that insects will use phylogenetically closely related plants over more distantly related plants. Although some studies have supported these two hypotheses, others have not. Simultaneous tests of the two hypotheses on more than one species are lacking, and this limits comparative inter- pretation of previous studies. We undertook a comparative investigation to determine whether preference-performance and/or the phylogenetic conservatism hypothesis can explain host-use patterns of two phytophagous insects, the fruit flies Bactrocera cucumis and B. tryoni. Within a nested, plant phylogenetic framework, oviposition preference and off- spring performance of the two fruit fly species were tested on fruits of plant species from across different plant families, from within a family and across cultivars within a species. The results show that both the preference-performance and the phylogenetic conservatism hypotheses can, depending on the host plant taxonomic level, explain host usage patterns in B. cucumis, while neither theory explained the host pat- terns seen in B. tryoni. In the light of increasing recognition of the complexity of host plant-herbivore relationships, and of ongoing studies which as often as not fail to find support for these theories as those that do, we discuss the limited value of either theory as a basis for future research.

Spatial distribution of turaco-preferred food plants in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve, Mambilla Plateau, Taraba State, Nigeria

The relative distribution was investigated of turaco-preferred food plants in the main forest and the forest fragments of Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve in Taraba State, Nigeria. Data collection was carried out in three sections within the forest reserve and these include (i) forest fragment, (ii) within the main forest and (iii) the boundary area of the main forest. Ten plots with size of 25 m × 25 m were laid at an interval of 50 m in each of the three selected sites making a total of 30 plots for the sampling of turaco-preferred fruiting plant species. The numbers of fruiting tree species identified were 22, 25 and 24, and out of these only seven (31.8%), eight (32%) and six (25%) were preferred by turacos in the forest fragment, within the main forest and the boundary area of the main forest, respectively. The preferred fruiting plant species in the forest fragment was Syzygium guineense (48.6%), in the boundary area of the main forest was Ficus sp. (13.3%) and within the main forest was Polyscias fulva (3.9%). Many of the fruiting tree species in the boundary area and within the main forest were not preferred by turacos. There is a need for effective pro-conservative measures aimed at preserving the remaining forest patches (especially the forest fragment) of the reserve.