Mushroom Fruiting Bodies Research Articles

Bacterial secretion systems contribute to rapid tissue decay in button mushroom soft rot disease.

The soft rot pathogen Janthinobacterium agaricidamnosum causes devastating damage to button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus), one of the most cultivated and commercially relevant mushrooms. We previously discovered that this pathogen releases the membrane-disrupting lipopeptide jagaricin. This bacterial toxin, however, could not solely explain the rapid decay of mushroom fruiting bodies, indicating that J. agaricidamnosum implements a more sophisticated infection strategy. In this study, we show that secretion systems play a crucial role in soft rot disease. By mining the genome of J. agaricidamnosum, we identified gene clusters encoding a type I (T1SS), a type II (T2SS), a type III (T3SS), and two type VI secretion systems (T6SSs). We targeted the T2SS and T3SS for gene inactivation studies, and subsequent bioassays implicated both in soft rot disease. Furthermore, through a combination of comparative secretome analysis and activity-guided fractionation, we identified a number of secreted lytic enzymes responsible for mushroom damage. Our findings regarding the contribution of secretion systems to the disease process expand the current knowledge of bacterial soft rot pathogens and represent a significant stride toward identifying targets for their disarmament with secretion system inhibitors. IMPORTANCE The button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is the most popular edible mushroom in the Western world. However, mushroom crops can fall victim to serious bacterial diseases that are a major threat to the mushroom industry, among them being soft rot disease caused by Janthinobacterium agaricidamnosum. Here, we show that the rapid dissolution of mushroom fruiting bodies after bacterial invasion is due to degradative enzymes and putative effector proteins secreted via the type II secretion system (T2SS) and the type III secretion system (T3SS), respectively. The ability to degrade mushroom tissue is significantly attenuated in secretion-deficient mutants, which establishes that secretion systems are key factors in mushroom soft rot disease. This insight is of both ecological and agricultural relevance by shedding light on the disease processes behind a pathogenic bacterial-fungal interaction which, in turn, serves as a starting point for the development of secretion system inhibitors to control disease progression.

Expression profiling of laccase and β-glucan synthase genes in Pleurotus ostreatus during different developmental stages.

Pleurotus ostreatus, commonly known as the oyster mushroom, is a saprophytic fungus with many applications in biotechnology and medicine. This mushroom is a rich source of proteins, polysaccharides, and bioactive compounds that have been shown to possess anticancer, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. In this study, we investigated the expression profile of laccase (POXA3) and β-glucan synthase (FKS) genes during different developmental stages in two strains of P. ostreatus. Cultural and morphological studies of the two strains were studied. DMR P115 strain recorded faster mycelial growth compared to the HUC strain. However, both strains produced white, thick fluffy mycelial growth with radiating margin. Morphological characteristics of the mushroom fruiting body were also higher in the DMR P115 strain. The expression of these genes was analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and the results were compared to those of the reference gene β-actin. The expression of laccase (POXA3) was higher in the mycelial stage of DMR P115 and HUC strains indicating its role in the fruiting body development and substrate degradation. The expression of β-glucan synthase (FKS) was upregulated in the mycelium and mature fruiting body of the DMR P115 strain. In contrast, there was only significant upregulation in the mycelial stage of the HUC strain, which indicates its role in cell wall formation and the immunostimulatory properties of that strain. The results deepen the understanding of the molecular mechanism of the fruiting body development in P. ostreatus and can be used as a foundation for future lines of research related to strain improvement of P. ostreatus.

Optimal Conditioning of Growth Media White Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) to Increase Productivity

The cultivation of white oyster mushrooms is the difficulty of making mushroom seedlings, especially the technology is quite expensive and the nature of mushroom growth which has two different temperatures, namely low temperature when making seedlings and medium temperature when forming mushroom fruit bodies. Therefore optimal conditioning of the growth medium of white oyster mushroom (pleurotus ostreatus) to increase production yield. Judging from the business opportunity, oyster mushrooms are among the most popular compared to other types of mushrooms. In general, white oyster mushroom cultivation is considered easy to do, as long as the living environment is well considered. Although mushrooms are more optimal to grow in the highlands (cool areas), cultivation in the lowlands can also be done, as long as the place of maintenance is conditioned the same as its natural habitat.

Influence of the urban environment on four mushroom species in the light of their elemental composition

The mushrooms are living organisms with excellent capability to adapt to the multiple challenges of their environment. Several species are well represented in urban green areas (parks, green spots, and recreation grounds). We investigated the influence of the urban environment over two saprotrophic (Bovista plumbea, Lycoperdon perlatum) and two mycorrhizal (Amanita rubescens, Suillus granulatus) species commonly present in urban parks of Cluj-Napoca, a major city of Romania. Three control sites close to the city were chosen. We determined 19 elements (Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, S, Si, Sr, Ti, and Zn) in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms and in soils by ICP OES technique. S. granulatus was the most sensible species to the urban pollution; this species accumulated 130 and 4.40 mg kg−1 (dry weight) median concentrations of Al and Ni, respectively. The highest concentration of Ag, Cu and Fe was determined in B. plumbea (3.18, 83.7 and 141 mg kg−1, respectively) and L. perlatum (4.68, 91.0 and 125 kg−1, respectively) collected from the city. The saprotrophic species contained appreciably higher concentrations of Ag, Cu, Fe, Mg, P, and S than the mycorrhizal ones. Common feature of all four species was the higher Ag and Sr concentrations in the fruiting bodies of urban origin. Our results suggest that the unique defence mechanisms of the species might have higher impact over the elemental profile of the mushrooms than the soil properties. We propose L. perlatum and S. granulatus as suitable indicator species of the urban pollution with regard to inorganic pollutants.

Performance of Edible Mushroom Varieties Under Different Agricultural Substrates

The study was conducted at Dr. Emilio B. Espinosa, Sr. Memorial State College of Agriculture and Technology (DEBESMSCAT) Cabitan, Mandaon, Masbate. The experimental design used was 3 x 7 CRD factorial with three varieties of mushrooms (Pink Oyster, White Abalone, and Milky Mushroom), seven agricultural substrates as treatments, Treatment A (70% rice straw and 30% sawdust), Treatment B (70% rice straw and 30% corn cob), Treatment C (70% rice straw and 30% Carbonized Rice Hull), Treatment D (100% rice straw), Treatment E (100% sawdust), Treatment F (100% corn cob) and Treatment G (100% Carbonized Rice Hull). The experiment was replicated three times with a total of 945 fruiting bags. Height, fresh weight, and the number of fruiting bodies are the data that was observed in the study. The result showed that in terms of growth performance, a nonsignificant result was observed in the height performance of the mushroom varieties inoculated in substrates with 70% rice straw, 30% corn cob, and 100% carbonized rice hull. Similarly, the number of mushroom fruiting bodies produced differed among mushroom varieties inoculated. Mushrooms inoculated in 100% carbonized rice hull attained more fruiting bodies than other tested varieties. Mushrooms inoculated in 100% corn cob produced a significantly higher number of mushroom fruiting bodies than other treatments. Finally, the weight of mushroom fruiting bodies produced in 70% rice straw and 30% carbonized rice hull applications was statistically significant for all agricultural substrates inoculated. The researcher concluded that using agricultural substrates other than carbonized rice is effective in mushroom production.

Draft Genome Sequence for the Symbiotic Pine Mushroom Tricholoma matsutake.

We report the high-quality genome sequence of Tricholoma matsutake strain 2001, which was isolated from a mushroom fruiting body in South Korea. The genome has 80 contigs, a size of 162.6 Mb, and an N50 value of 5,103,859 bp and will provide insight into the symbiotic association between T. matsutake and Pinus densiflora.

Association of Bacterial Communities with Psychedelic Mushroom and Soil as Revealed in 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing.

Microbial communities' resident in the mushroom fruiting body and the soil around it play critical roles in the growth and propagation of the mushroom. Among the microbial communities associated with psychedelic mushrooms and the rhizosphere soil, bacterial communities are considered vital since their presence greatly influences the health of the mushrooms. The present study aimed at finding the microbiota present in the psychedelic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis and the soil the mushroom inhabits. The study was conducted at two different locations in Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, India. The composition and structure of microbial communities in the mushroom fruiting body and the soil were deciphered. The genomes of the microbial communities were directly assessed. High-throughput amplicon sequencing revealed distinct microbial diversity in the mushroom and the related soil. The interaction of environmental and anthropogenic factors appeared to have a significant impact on the mushroom and soil microbiome. The most abundant bacterial genera were Ochrobactrum, Stenotrophomonas, Achromobacter, and Brevundimonas. Thus, the study advances the knowledge of the composition of the microbiome and microbial ecology of a psychedelic mushroom, and paves the way for in-depth investigation of the influence of microbiota on the mushroom, with special emphasis on the impact of bacterial communities on mushroom growth. Further studies are required for a deeper understanding of the microbial communities that influence the growth of P. cubensis mushroom.

Isolation, Phenotypic and Molecular Characterization of the Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus spp. and Evaluation of Its Efficacy in Producing the Antibiotic Pleurotin

Fruit bodies of the oyster mushroom, Pleurotus, were collected for 5 isolates symbolized by Has.AA-10, Has.AA-11, Has.AA-12, Has.AA-13 and Has. AA-14, which was initially diagnosed according to phenotypic characteristics. Fungal isolates were identified to the species level using the nucleotide sequence analysis method for 5.8S rRNA as P.ostreatus .strain Has.AA-10, P. floridanus strain Has.AA-12, P. cornucopiae strain Has.AA-13, P. cystidiosus strain Has.AA-11 and P. eryngii var. ferulae strain Has.AA-14 and registered in the world Gene Bank at the NCBI website with accession numbers KX688447.1, MK281340.1, KX787088.1, AB115054.1 and KU612924.1, respectively. The purity of pleurotin was tested by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) which showed a concentration of 7.68 μg/ml for the purified pleurutin from Pleurotus spp. The results showed that the highest pluorotin was recorded in presence of crushed sunflower seeds and wheat bran compared with the absence of those supplements in all tested media, while the results showed that no pluorutin was recorded as a result of the non-growth of all Pleurotus spp. in all media supplemented with crushed soybeans. The highest plurotin reached 24.67, 24, 21.35 and 20.99 mg/L in the treatment of P. cornucopiae grown in the (wheat straw + rice husks mixture), (barley straw + rice husk mixture), wheat straw and corn cobs supplemented with crushed sunflower seeds, respectively, while the lowest plurotin concentrations were 0.26, 1.13, 2.11 and 2.66 mg/L in Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae grown in the unsupplemented corn cobs, wheat straw, (wheat straw + rice husks mixture) and (barley straw + rice husks mixture), respectively.

Nutritional evaluation of spent and uninoculated mushroom substrate of Pleurotus ostreatus grown on cassava peels and sawdust

<p><span>This study aims to evaluate the role of edible fungi in the biodegradation of mushroom substrate by comparing the mineral and proximate composition of a pasteurized substrate before inoculation (BI) with the spent mushroom substrate (SMS) of </span><em><span>Pleurotus ostreatus</span></em><span> cultivated on cassava peels and sawdust. The experiment was conducted at the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State Nigeria. The treatment for this investigation comprised different levels of wheat bran namely: T1 (C/N 17:0 in the control), T2 (C/N ratio 17:1), and T3 (C/N ratio 17:3). 2% lime was added to the substrate to stabilize the pH. The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) which was replicated three times. The mineral and proximate compositions were determined using standard procedures. The data generated were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) at (p = 0.05). The result obtained from this investigation reviewed that the mineral composition before substrate inoculation was significantly higher than those obtained from the SMS which were in the range: of Na (0.10-0.17 mg/kg), Mg (0.25-0.40 mg/kg), Ash (1.56-2.65%), Ca (0.62-1.40 mg/kg), K (0.25-0.42 mg/kg), and P (0.11-0.44 mg/kg) while the proximate composition is in the range: dry matter (81.6-93.3%), N (0.18-0.31%), crude protein (CP) (1.13-1.94%), crude fiber (2.84-4.82%). This result revealed that significant quantities of the nutrients unlocked by </span><em><span>Pleurotus ostreatus</span></em><span> were assimilated into the mushroom fruit bodies. Therefore, </span><em><span>Pleurotus ostreatus</span></em><span> could be used to enrich cassava peels and sawdust substrates which can further be utilized in the formulation of livestock feeds. However, further studies are recommended especially in evaluating more nutritional indices of the substrate.</span></p>

Eksplorasi Jamur Desa Tulung Agung, Lampung Timur dan Potensi Pemanfaatannya

Mushrooms an be found in various places, such as litter, rotten wood, trees, and soil around residential areas. Tulung Agung Village in East Lampung Regency has various kinds of vegetation and several other abiotic factors that support the growth of mushroom. The study of mushroom’s exploration could elaborate the knowledge about mushroom diversity in resdential areas. This study aims to explore the types of mushrooms based on the description of their fruiting bodies from the residential location of Tulung Agung Village, District Pekalongan, East Lampung Regency, Lampung. The methods used were purposive sampling technique in a shady area or under the shade of a tree, documenting the mushroom fruiting bodies hat were found, and presenting mushrooms with fruiting bodies characters. After the exploration, 18 species from 14 genera of mushrooms were found, including Auricularia auricula-judae, Collybia sp., Conocybe sp., Daldinia sp., Gymnopilus sp., Marasmius sp., Marasmius haematocephalus, Mycena sp., Lepiota sp., Parasola sp., Pycnoporus sp., Trametes sp., Tremellodendron sp., and Xylaria sp. The various potentials of each type of mushrooms that were found are for food sources, traditional medicines, biodegradation of contaminants, sources of bioluminescence, and sources of various bioactive compounds. The Mushroom that were found need molecular identification to get the correct species so that the potential of Mushroom can be utilized optimally by residents based on more specific type information.

Compounds originating from the edible mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae inhibit tropomyosin receptor kinase B activity

Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) serves as a pivotal factor in various cancers. To identify novel natural compounds with TrkB-inhibiting properties, a screening approach was applied using extracts from a collection of wild and cultivated mushroom fruiting bodies, and Ba/F3 cells that ectopically express TrkB (TPR-TrkB). We selected mushroom extracts that selectively inhibited proliferation of the TPR-TrkB cells. We then evaluated the ability of exogenous interleukin 3 to rescue growth inhibition by the selected TrkB-positive extracts. An ethyl acetate extract of Auricularia auricula-judae actively inhibited auto-phosphorylation of TrkB. LC–MS/MS analysis of this extract revealed substances that might be responsible for the observed activity. This screening approach demonstrates, for the first time, that extracts originating from the mushroom A. auricula-judae exhibit TrkB-inhibition properties that might hold therapeutic potential for TrkB-positive cancers.

Elemental and Cu–Zn isotopic compositions of two bolete mushrooms grown on contrasting substrates

We studied elemental and Cu–Zn isotopic compositions of Boletus edulis and Xerocomus chrysenteron mushroom samples collected from three small catchments underlain by contrasting bedrock (leucogranite, amphibolite, and serpentinite). Elements such as Ag, P, K, Zn, S, Cd, and Rb are significantly enriched in the mushroom's fruiting bodies relative to the substrate. All analyzed elements are distributed unevenly within the fruiting bodies, with the cap and sporophore generally containing higher amounts of trace elements. Overall, the studied samples of the B. edulis more efficiently accumulate nutrients and minerals than the X. chrysenteron samples. Concentration of most trace elements in mushrooms is not site-dependent with the exception of Ca, Rb, Ti, Ba and Sr. Isotopic composition of mushrooms is characterized by higher uptake of heavier isotopes of Zn (Δ66Znstipe-soil = 0.48–0.77‰) for the both species, lighter isotopes of Cu (Δ65Custipe-soil = −0.73 to −1.52‰) for B. edulis, and heavier Cu isotopes (Δ65Custipe-soil = +0.37 to +0.43‰) for X. chrysenteron. The B. edulis samples are characterized by (δ65Custipe > δ65Cucap > δ65Cusporophore) and (δ66Znstipe > δ66Zncap > δ66Znsporophore) within-mushroom isotope distribution schemes, whereas the X. chrysenteron samples display different Cu (δ65Custipe < δ65Cucap > δ65Cusporophore) and Zn (δ66Znstipe > δ66Zncap < δ66Znsporophore) isotope distribution schemes. Changes in fungal isotopic signatures relative to the substrate and within the fruiting body suggest that both fungi species fractionate Cu and Zn isotopes with significantly pronounced differences between the species.

Kandungan Gizi Jamur Tiram pada Substrat Kayu Sengon dan Klaras Pisang

The study was conducted to observe the growth, fruiting body production and nutritional contents of white oyster mushroom (Pleurotussp., wild HS isolate) grown on 300 g of mixed substrate between sengon sawdust (Albizia chinensis) (SGKS) and dried banana leaves or klaras (Musa sp.) and compared with SGKS, the commonly used single substrate. Both substrates were added with 15% bran, 1.5% lime and 1.5% gypsum. The production of mushroom fruiting bodies on mixed substrates was higher than that of single substrate with biological efficiency of 27.24% and 22.00%, respectively. Likewise, the protein content of the mixed substrate was much higher than that of the single substrate, 19.6% and 10.9%, respectively, while the crude fiber and carbohydrate contents were slightly higher in the single substrate, respectively 8.76% and 54 ,37%. Further research needs to be carried out on a mixed substrate of at least 500 g to get a more complete pattern of the production and biological efficiency.

Влияние способов сушки лисички обыкновенной (Cantharellus cibarius) на биологическую ценность сухого функционального грибного ингредиента

Common chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) has a high biopotential for use in functional nutrition. The aim of the work is to study the effect of drying methods on the biological value of dry functional mushroom ingredient from the fruit bodies of chanterelle mushrooms. The fruit bodies of Cantharellus cibarius collected in Kingisepp district of Leningrad region (Russia) were the object of the study. It was found that the content of the main components in the chemical composition of mushrooms in Kingisepp district slightly differs from the reference data; the content of minerals manganese, potassium, and vitamins D, C, and B3 provides the daily requirement of the human body in these substances, as for the heavy metals content – strontium and zinc were found in insignificant amounts. Analysis of the fatty acid composition of the mushrooms showed that the content of linoleic and oleic acids is of interest for obtaining a food ingredient. To obtain a functional mushroom ingredient, lyophilic drying for 34 h, heat drying at 70ºC for 12 h and at 50ºC for 24 h were used. Six samples were studied: lyophilic drying (cubes), 50ºC heat drying (chips), 70ºC heat drying (whole mushroom), and powders from fruit bodies dried by lyophilic drying, 50ºC and 70ºC heat drying. Based on the comparative analysis of samples according to organoleptic quality indicators, recommendations were given for the use of dry ingredients: samples after lyophilic drying (cubes) are recommended to create the presence of mushroom pieces in functional products, powders obtained by heat drying – to give the product mushroom flavor and aroma. In the recommended samples the content of vitamins B1, B2, A, E, B3, and B6 was determined. The maximum preservation of vitamins A, B1, B3, and B6 in the samples dried by lyophilic drying and heat drying at 70ºС was established.

Arsenic speciation of commonly eaten mushrooms from central Europe

Environmental context With mushroom consumption increasing worldwide, it is important to know about the concentration of different arsenic species in the most commonly eaten mushroom species, especially since the toxicity depends on the chemical structure. No dangerous amounts of the highly toxic inorganic arsenic were detected in the studied mushrooms. It is therefore safe to consume mushroom fruit-bodies of the investigated species, at least with regard to the arsenic content.Rationale A large variety of different mushroom species is considered edible. They are often considerably distinct from each other in a wide range of properties, among others the elemental profile and the speciation of various elements, e.g. arsenic.Methodology In this first comprehensive study of arsenic and its species in the most popular cultivated and wild-grown edible mushrooms in central Europe, the arsenic mass fraction and the arsenic speciation of a total of 93 mushroom samples were investigated with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) and high performance liquid chromatography coupled to ICPMS.Results The arsenic mass fractions ranged from <0.004 to 1.02 mg kg−1 dry mass. For some mushroom species (e.g. Cantharellus cibarius), only low amounts of the total arsenic could be extracted with water, and other mushrooms revealed unusual arsenic speciation profiles and the presence of compounds that are rarely found in the terrestrial environment, for example dimethylarsinoylacetic acid, accounting for around 12% of the total arsenic in Boletus edulis. Over all, the results highlight the diversity of arsenic species in mushrooms, but also reveal a high consistency within the individual mushroom species.Discussion With mushroom production increasing each year, it is important to know the content of possibly dangerous compounds. The toxic inorganic arsenic was generally below 0.2 mg kg−1 dry mass. Considering the maximum limit that can be eaten of inorganic arsenic without increased health risk, at least 2 kg of the studied mushrooms could be consumed by an average person per day on a regular basis.

In-vitro cultural, nutritional, antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of Macrolepiota procera and Amanita caesaria: a rare mushroom from Madhya Pradesh, India under submerged culture condition

Macrolepiota procera and Amanita caesaria are the rarely accepted mushrooms among the society even if both are well known for their therapeutic properties. Present findings are focused on their in-vitro growth performance, colony characteristics, nutritional properties, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity under submerged culture conditions. The mushroom fruit bodies were collected from the different forest divisions of Madhya Pradesh and cultured. Malt extract broth was best suited medium for both Macrolepiota procera and Amanita caesaria. Biochemical studies in the mushroom mycelia grown in malt extract revealed a very good range of phyto-chemicals, which are considered as strong therapeutic agents. In addition, radical scavenging activity in the culture broth was assayed and highest activity was also recorded in malt extract media. Macrolepiota procera exhibited 55.74 % while Amanita caesaria exhibited 61.22 % of free radical scavenging activity. Malt extract medium thus proved to be the best medium for the culturing as well as for the production of antioxidants by both the mushroom species selected. In case of Antioxidant activity boiled water extract proven to be better than methanolic extract.

Transcriptome Profiling Reveals Candidate Genes Related to Stipe Gradient Elongation of Flammulina filiformis.

Stipe gradient elongation is an important and remarkable feature in the development of most mushroom fruiting bodies. However, its molecular mechanism has rarely been described. Here, the decreasing trend of stipe elongation and increasing trend of cell length in a gradient from the top to the base of the stipe were determined in a model basidiomycete mushroom: Flammulina filiformis. According to RNA-seq results, 1409 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified among elongation region (ER), transition region (TR), and stable region (SR) samples, including 26 transcription factors (TFs). Based on Short Time-series Expression Miner (STEM) clustering of DEGs, clusters 1 and 3, with obvious expression trends that were consistent with or in contrast to the elongation rate, were screened. The cluster 1 DEGs were mainly involved in the GO cellular component category and KEGG genetic information processing class; however, the cluster 3 DEGs were mainly involved in metabolic processes. Furthermore, qRT-PCR confirmed that key genes of the long-chain fatty acid synthesis pathway were involved in stipe gradient elongation and regulated by NADPH oxidase-derived ROS signaling molecules. These findings provide an essential basis for understanding the molecular mechanism of stipe gradient elongation.

Spectroscopic analysis of mushrooms by surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)

BackgroundMushrooms have always been considered an important source of food and biologically active compounds with several medicinal properties. In recent years, different methods were used to study the quality and chemical composition of mushrooms. Among these, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and FT-Raman spectroscopy techniques have been successfully applied to identify different mushroom species. However, the structural biomolecule components existing in the mycelium or in the fruiting bodies may produce strong fluorescence emission that overlaps the Raman radiation, thus avoiding their analyses by Raman. SERS spectroscopy is a powerful technique which uses metal nanoparticles (NPs) to enhance the Raman signal of molecules adsorbed on the NPs surface. In addition, SERS is able to quench the macromolecule florescence. In this work, we have employed silver nanoparticles in order to get mushroom fingerprints based on SERS as quick procedure to analyze and identify different chemical compounds from the fruiting bodies of six edible and/or medicinal mushrooms: Lentinula edodes, Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus cornucopiae, Pleurotus ostreatus, Tuber aestivum and Tuber magnatum.ResultsSERS analyses performed directly on fruiting body fragments produced characteristic spectra for each species. One group of mushrooms (L. edodes, G. lucidum, T. aestivum and T. magnatum) was dominated by the bands of nucleic acids; and the other one (P. cornucopiae and P. ostreatus), by the bands of pigments such as melanins; carotenoids; azafilones; polyketides; and flavonoids located in the cell wall. Additionally, bands corresponding to cell wall polysaccharides, particularly chitosan and 1,3-β D-glucan, were identified in the extracts of P. cornucopiae, P. ostreatus and L. edodes. No signal of cell wall polysaccharides was found in G. lucidum extract. Raman mapping of the analyzed samples was useful in tracking the spatial distribution of the marker bands. Moreover, the principal component analysis (PCA) carried out on the acquired SERS spectra, allows to discriminate the analyzed mushroom species.ConclusionsThe SERS technique has the ability to generate a strong Raman signal from mushroom fruiting bodies using Ag-NPs deposited directly on intact, untreated mushroom tissues. Using this methodology, commonly applied laboratory time-consuming methods can be avoided or bypassed as well as analysis time can be reduced.Graphical

Secrets of Flavonoid Synthesis in Mushroom Cells.

Flavonoids are chemical compounds that occur widely across the plant kingdom. They are considered valuable food additives with pro-health properties, and their sources have also been identified in other kingdoms. Especially interesting is the ability of edible mushrooms to synthesize flavonoids. Mushrooms are usually defined as a group of fungal species capable of producing macroscopic fruiting bodies, and there are many articles considering the content of flavonoids in this group of fungi. Whereas the synthesis of flavonoids was revealed in mycelial cells, the ability of mushroom fruiting bodies to produce flavonoids does not seem to be clearly resolved. This article, as an overview of the latest key scientific findings on flavonoids in mushrooms, outlines and organizes the current state of knowledge on the ability of mushroom fruiting bodies to synthesize this important group of compounds for vital processes. Putting the puzzle of the current state of knowledge on flavonoid biosynthesis in mushroom cells together, we propose a universal scheme of studies to unambiguously decide whether the fruiting bodies of individual mushrooms are capable of synthesizing flavonoids.

Cadmium in the hyperaccumulating mushroom Thelephora penicillata: Intracellular speciation and isotopic composition

Thelephora penicillata is an ectomycorrhizal mushroom that can accumulate extraordinarily high concentrations of Cd, As, Cu, and Zn in its fruit-bodies. To better understand its element accumulation ability, we compared the element concentrations in T. penicillata with 10 distinct ectomycorrhizal mushroom species growing at the same site (Karlina Pila, Czech Republic). On average, T. penicillata accumulated 330, 2130, 26, and 4 times more Cd, As, Cu, and Zn, respectively, than other mushrooms. Size-exclusion chromatography and an electrophoretic analysis of T. penicillata cell extracts indicate that intracellular Cd may be present mainly in >1 kDa, presumably compartmentalized, Cd species, and partially binding with 6-kDa cysteinyl-containing peptide(s) resembling metallothioneins. The cadmium isotopic composition of mushroom fruit-bodies, soil digests, and soil extracts was investigated by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) with double spike correction. The isotopic composition (δ114/110Cd) of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms from Karlina Pila varied in a wide range of −0.37 to +0.14 ‰. However, remarkably low δ114/110Cd values were observed in the majority of the investigated mushrooms when compared to the relatively homogeneous Cd isotopic composition of bulk soil (δ114/110Cd = +0.09 ‰) and the comparatively heavy isotopic composition of soil extracts (mean δ114/110Cd values of +0.11 ± 0.01 ‰ and +0.22 ± 0.01 ‰, depending on the extraction method). The isotopic composition of Cd hyperaccumulated in T. penicillata essentially matched the mycoavailable soil Cd fraction. However, most isotopic data indicates isotopic fractionation at the soil/fruit-body interface, which could be of environmental significance.