Fruit Shape Index Research Articles

An AFLP, SRAP, and SSR Genetic Linkage Map and Identification of QTLs for Fruit Traits in Pear (Pyrus L.)

In this study, a population of 97 F1 seedlings from a cross between the interspecific hybrid (European × Chinese species) pear ‘Bayuehong’ (BYH) and the Chinese pear ‘Dangshansuli’ (DS) was used for establishing linkage maps and for quantitative trait loci (QTL) discovery. Using amplified length polymorphism (AFLP), simple sequence repeat (SSR), and sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) markers, along with the S locus for self-incompatibility, two parental linkage maps were constructed. The map of BYH consisted of 214 markers (143 AFLPs, 64 SRAPs, 6 SSRs, and S) mapped on all 17 linkage groups of the pear genome with a total length of 1,352.7 cM. The map of DS was comprised of 122 markers (83 AFLPs, 37 SRAPs, 1 SSR, and S) distributed along all 17 linkage groups and covering 1,044.3 cM. Based on phenotypic data from two successive years (2007 and 2008) for six fruit traits, including fruit weight (in grams), fruit diameter (in centimeters), fruit length (in centimeters), soluble solids content, fruit shape index, and maturity date, 19 QTLs were detected. These QTLs were mapped on LG 01, LG 02, LG 05, LG 07, LG 08, LG 10 of the BYH map and LG 02, LG 06, LG 15 of the DS map and accounting for 7.1 to 22.0 % of the observed phenotypic variance. Four QTLs, Pfi-8-1 for fruit shape index, Pfm-8-1 for fruit maturity date, Pfw-7-1 and Pfw-8-1 for fruit weight (in grams), with LOD scores ≥3.5, were deemed as major genes. QTLs Pfi-8-1, Pfm-8-1, and Pfw-8-1 were co-localized on LG 08 of the BYH map, along with Pfl-8-1 for fruit length. It was observed that on LG 07 of the BYH map, QTLs for fruit length, fruit shape index, and fruit weight were clustered. When QTL locations from both years were compared, Pfl-7-1 and Pfl-7-2 for fruit length, Pfi-2-1 and Pfi-2-2 for fruit shape index, and Pfm-8-1 and Pfm-8-2 for fruit maturity date were stably mapped onto the same linkage groups, respectively. Moreover, Pfm-8-1 and Pfm-8-2 were also located within the same region of LG 08 of the BYH map.

Heterosis, potence ratio and correlation of some important characters in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Five commercial tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cultivars and their ten F1 hybrids were used in order to detect the general performances and estimation the heterosis percentages, potence ratios, and phenotypic correlation coefficients among all possible pairs of some important tomato's characters. The obtained results reflected a range of significant variability for most of the traits studied. The general performances of the F1 hybrids reflected the presence of various degrees of dominance effects; i.e., partial- to over-dominance for the characters of plant height, number of primary branches per plant, pericarp thickness, fruit firmness, total soluble solids, ascorbic acid content, number of flowers per cluster, number of fruits per plant and total fruits yield per plant. Whereas, some others studied characters; i.e., fruit shape index, locules number per fruit and fruit weight, illustrated the presence of partial- to under-recessiveness; but, with different degrees. All 10 F1 hybrids had significantly higher number of fruits per plant and total fruits yield per plant than their respective mid-parental values, meanwhile for the other traits, hybrids exhibited average heterosis in both directions. The mid-parent heterosis varied from −16.04 to 29.75% for plant height, −5.74 to 20.95 for number of primary branches per plant, −34.72 to 15.18% for fruit shape index, −35.72 to 49.02% for number of locules per fruit, −9.22 to 25.88% for pericarp thickness, −5.02 to 15.21% for fruit firmness, −11.46 to 25.50 for total soluble solids, −1.26 to 15.66% for ascorbic acid content, −9.39 to 22.48% for number of flowers per cluster, 4.37 to 104.69% for number of fruits per plant, −32.78 to 11.29% for average fruit weight, 22.29 to 64.33% for total fruits yield per plant. Significant positive correlation between total fruits yield per plant and each of the number of flowers per cluster, number of fruits per plant and average fruit weight was detected. On the other side, significant negative correlation was observed between number of fruits per plant and fruit weight.

Comparative mapping in watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. et Nakai

The first single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) maps for watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. et Nakai] were constructed and compared. Three populations were developed from crosses between two elite cultivars, Klondike Black Seeded × New Hampshire Midget (KBS × NHM), an elite cultivar and wild egusi accession, Strain II × PI 560023 (SII × Egusi) and an elite cultivar and a wild citron accession, ZWRM50 × PI 244019 (ZWRM × Citroides). The SII × Egusi and ZWRM × Citroides F(2) populations consisted of 187 and 182 individuals respectively while the KBS × NHM recombinant inbred line (RIL) population consisted of 164 lines. The length of the genetic maps were 1,438, 1,514 and 1,144 cM with average marker distances of 3.8, 4.2, and 3.4 cM for the KBS × NHM, SII × Egusi and ZWRM × Citroides populations, respectively. Shared markers were used to align the three maps so that the linkage groups (LGs) represented the 11 chromosomes of the species. Marker segregation distortion were observed in all three populations, but was highest (12.7 %) in the ZWRM × Citroides population, where Citroides alleles were favored. The three maps were used to construct a consensus map containing 378 SNP markers with an average distance of 5.1 cM between markers. Phenotypic data was collected for fruit weight (FWT), fruit length (FL), fruit width (FWD), fruit shape index (FSI), rind thickness (RTH) and Brix (BRX) and analyzed for quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with these traits. A total of 40 QTL were identified in the three populations, including major QTL for fruit size and shape that were stable across genetic backgrounds and environments. The present study reports the first SNP maps for Citrullus and the first map constructed using two elite parents. We also report the first stable QTL associated with fruit size and shape in Citrullus lanatus. These maps, QTL and SNPs should be useful for the watermelon community and represent a significant step towards the potential use of molecular tools in watermelon breeding.

Influence of rootstocks on yield and fruit characteristics and quality of watermelon

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of grafting and kinds of rootstocks on yield that are economically feasible for the watermelon producer. Fruit characteristics and quality attributes of grafted plants in open field conditions were also analyzed. The tongue approach grafting method was adopted. Three Watermelon cultivars of ‘Crimson Tide’, ‘Dumara’, and ‘Farao’ were used as the scion. Three hybrid squashes of ‘Dynamo’, ‘RS-841’, and ‘Shintosa’ were used as rootstocks. Results showed that some fruit quality indicators such as dry matter, total soluble solids, total sugar and titratable acid contents were lower in grafted plants while lycopene contents remained unchanged. The pH was slightly altered by grafting. Use of rootstock did not show advantages at comparable fruit quality indicators. Results also showed that fruit shape index, rind thickness, fruit weight, total yield and marketable yield were significantly influenced by grafting. Use of rootstocks significantly increased previously mentioned values which is related with yield, as compared to the non-grafted plant. Analyses proved the use of rootstocks as economically feasible and an advantageous alternative in watermelon production.

Impact of saline water irrigation on yield and quality of melon (Cucumis melo cv. Huanghemi) in northwest China

Melon plants (Cucumis melo L.) cv. Huanghemi were grown in an open field trial in 2007 and 2008 in the Minqin Oasis in northwest China to investigate the effect of increased saline water concentration on yield, crop tolerance and fruit quality. Three saline water concentrations were evaluated: 0.8, 2 and 5gL−1 (C; S1 and S2) with an electrical conductivity of 1, 2.66 and 7.03dSm−1 respectively. The saline concentrations of irrigation water were intended to reproduce the saline concentration in groundwater present throughout the Minqin Oasis. The melon was irrigated by furrow irrigation. The soil electrical conductivity in saturated paste (ECe) increased in treatment S2 during both the first and second year. Treatment S1 shows the same trend, although less pronounced and only in the first year. At the same time no significant increase was observed for the control, C.Total ETc decreased with increasing salinity of the irrigation water. The 0.0–0.3m layer contributed most to meeting crop water requirements (63% on average) while the 0.3–0.6 and 0.6–1.0m layers contributed 19% and 18% respectively. The reduction in ETc was significant from 49 DAT onwards and increased over time with continuous saline irrigation. Increased salinity significantly reduced the leaf area index (LAI) and leaf area duration (LAD). A reduction in marketable fruit yield resulted from the lower mean weight of fruits, while the small decrease in the number of fruits per plant was not significant. The harvest index (HI) significantly increased with increasing salinity of the irrigation water. The maximum mean seasonal electrical conductivity of the saturated soil paste ECed without yield reduction (i.e., the salt tolerance threshold) was 2.7dSm−1 for the marketable yield. Above the salt tolerance threshold, the total yield was reduced by 12.7% per unit increase of soil salinity.Total soluble solids (TSS), i.e. the pulp fraction, increased significantly with increasing salinity of the irrigation water while no significant difference was observed in flesh hardness, despite the increasing trend with increasing salinity. As the irrigation water salinity rose, the number of seeds per fruit increased significantly while the unit weight decreased but not significantly. The inverse relationship, r=−0.971**, found for the two traits proves their association. The fruit shape index (FSI) increased significantly with increasing salinity of the irrigation water, with the fruits tending to become spherical.

EVALUATION OF TABLE-OLIVE QUALITY PARAMETERS IN PROGENIES OBTAINED BY CROSS-BREEDING

In 2003 a table olive breeding program was begun at the University of Seville. An initial plantation of 287 seedling trees coming from four different families obtained by cross-breeding was established at the IFAPA Las Torres, Alcala del Rio (Spain). Two years later the most precocious genotypes began to produce fruits. In September 2006 and 2007 more than 60% of the plants had overcome the juvenile period and produced enough amounts of olives as to begin the evaluation of fruit traits. We present the first results obtained for seven table olive parameters measured along the two campaigns: yield, fruit weight, flesh/stone ratio, fruit shape index, stone shape index, oil content and flesh texture.

Effect of foliar spraying with algae suspension on leaf and fruit quality parameters of apple varieties

Foliar nutrition experiment was made to investigate the effect of algae products on fruit quality of apples (Malus domestica Borkh.). The study was conducted in 2011 at Siófok inWest-Hungary on cv. ‘Jonagored’ and ‘Idared’grafted on M9 rootstock. In our trial leaf diagnostic and fruit quality measurements were made to study the effectiveness of applied products. Relative leaf chlorophyll content was determined by a portable chlorophyll meter. Fruit weight and shape index were measured. Fruit inner qualifying parameters like titratable acid content and Brix value were also determined. It can be stated that the used products had traceable effect on investigated fruit parameters. Although, leaf N content was not effected by treatments significantly, relative leaf chlorophyll content significantly increased by both treatments. Used products significantly increased the fruit weight and shape index. Applied treatments significantly decreased the pH of pulp. Treatments increased the acid contents (fumaric, citric, malic) of apples and decreased the amount of monosaccharides. It means that the applied treatments pushed out the ratio of acid/sugar.

杂交沙棘无性系子代的生长动态分析与综合评价

以沙棘无性系子代测定林为对象，通过分析沙棘新梢和果实生长动态规律，以及杂种沙棘果实纵径、横径、果形指数、单果质量、单株产量和棘刺密度等数量性状的遗传稳定性和遗传效应，并对5个杂交种的无性系子代进行综合评价，选育最佳杂种无性系。结果表明：沙棘无性系新梢生长进程大致划分4个生长阶段，即：缓慢生长期、均稳生长期、速生期和生长停止期，各阶段的新梢生长量存在一定差异，但生长趋势基本一致；沙棘果形指数(L/D)的变化趋势呈倒“S”型，前期下降幅度较大，中期平缓，后期中国沙棘略微上升，杂种沙棘却依然平稳生长；综合果实纵径、横径、单果质量和果柄长等数量性状，结合生态适应性、生长势和棘刺密度等指标，确定中阿4号杂交种的无性系表现最佳，单果质量与果实纵径和横径呈显著正相关，相关程度紧密，且植株生长稳定，棘刺密度最低，果粒大，果柄长，易采摘，应用前景广阔。 The progeny test plantations of seabuckthorn Clones were studied by analysis on the dynamic growth rhythm of seabuckthorn new shoots and fruits, genetic stability and genetic effects of the fruit length, fruit diameter, shape index of fruits, fruit mass, Yield per Plant and density of thorns and so on, and comprehensive evaluation of five filial generation of hybrid seabuckthorn, the superior hybrid clones were selected. The results showed that the new shoot growth process of seabuckthorn clones is roughly divided into four stages of growth, slow growth period, stable growth period, the fast-growing and the stop-growing period, there are some differences from the shoot growth of each stage, but the growth trend is basically the same; the change trend of Seabuckthorn fruit shape index (L/D) was inverted “S” type, it is down sharply at the early stage, stable at mid-stage, Chinese seabuckthorn slightly rises, but Crossbreeds is still steady growth at late stage; Chinese × Russian Seabuckthorn-4 was the best hybrid clones by synthetic analysis the quantitative traits of fruit length, fruit diameter, single fruit weight, the length of fruit stalk and the indexes of ecological adaptation, the Growth Vigor and the density of thorns. There were significant positive correlation between its fruit mass and fruit length, fruit diameter, and close relations. Moreover, it has advantages as plant growth stability, the lowest density of thorns, fruit larger, fruit stalk longer, easy to pick and broad application prospect.

Sweet pepper production in substrate in response to salinity, nutrient solution management and training system

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the marketable fruit yield of sweet pepper plants (Capsicum annuum cv. Orlando) in function of the management of nutrient solution with training system. Plants were grown on coconut coir dust under greenhouse conditions in the southeast of Spain. A randomized block design in split-split plot with four blocks was used to test the effect of the nutrient solution strength (full or half-strength Hoagland nutrient solution), training system (two and three stems per plant) and water salinity (saline and non-saline) on total and marketable yield, fruit quality, and fruit mineral concentration. Salt treatment decreased fruit yield by decreasing the fruit fresh weight but not the number of fruits per plant. Under saline and non-saline conditions, the higher yield of fruits was obtained in plants watered with half-strength Hoagland solution, and grown with three stems per plant. Blossom end rot incidence increased under saline conditions or using full-strength Hoagland solution, but decreased with the combination of half-strength Hoagland solution and three-stem training system. Salt treatment also decreased fruit quality in all the treatments due to a decrease in PO2-, SO4(2-), Fe2+;3+, Cu1+;2+ and Mn2+ concentrations, and fruit shape index. Likewise, plants exposed to salinity and watered with half-strength Hoagland solution and trained with three stems showed a reduction in juice glucose and fructose concentration. Based on these results, an increase of the marketable fruit yield could be obtained under non or moderate saline conditions with the implementation of suitable culture practices.

Identification of markers linked to major gene loci involved in determination of fruit shape index of apples (Malus domestica)

Fruit shape index (FSI) is one of the most important traits in apple. In this study, the inheritance of a FSI (ratio between height and diameter at the widest point of the fruit) was analysed in a hybrid population derived from ‘Jonathan’ × ‘Golden Delicious’ (Malus domestica Borkh) using frequency distribution and molecular marker analysis. A binary distribution pattern was observed which matched a 31:1 segregation ratio for small: large FSI scores. This ratio can be explained by the segregation of five independently inheriting single dose loci, whereby high FSI requires the simultaneous absence of all dominant alleles. The joined heritability of these major genes was estimated to be 75.00 and 75.51% in the year of 2008 and 2009, respectively. Bulked segregant analysis (BSA) on two subsets of 30 seedlings, 30 seedlings with large FSI and 30 seedlings with small FSI resulted in the discovery of four genomic regions associated with FSI. They are located at four linkage groups (10, 11, 12 and 13) at short distance of the SSR markers CH02c11, CH04a12, CH03c02 and GD147 respectively. One AFLP marker, M-CTA/E-AGG-0240, was also found. Our results indicated that five major genes involved in FSI determination segregated in this population and that the genotypes of the parental cultivars, ‘Jonathan’ and ‘Golden Delicious’, are putatively f10f10F11-1f11-1F11-2f11-2F12f12F13f13 and F10f10f11-1f11-1f11-2f11-2f12f12f13f13 respectively.

Characterization of fs10.1, a major QTL controlling fruit elongation in Capsicum

We previously identified fs10.1 as a major QTL controlling fruit shape (index of length to width) in an interspecific F(2) cross of Capsicum annuum (round fruit)×C. chinense (elongated fruit) in pepper. To more precisely map and characterize the QTL, we constructed near-isogenic lines for fs10.1 and mapped it in a BC(4)F(2) population. In this population, fs10.1 segregated as a Mendelian locus and mapped 0.3cM away from the closest molecular marker. We further verified the effect of fs10.1 in an F(2) population from an independent cross between elongated- and conical-fruited parents. To identify additional allelic variation at fruit shape loci, we screened an EMS-mutagenized population of the blocky-fruited cv. Maor and identified the mutant E-1654 with elongated fruit. This fruit shape mutation was mapped to the fs10.1 region and was determined to be allelic to the QTL. By measuring fruit shape of near-isogenic lines for fs10.1 during fruit development, we found that the shape of the fruit is determined primarily in the first 2weeks after anthesis. Histological measurements of cell size and cell shape in pericarp sections of fruits of the isogenic lines throughout fruit development indicated that the shape of the fruit is determined primarily by cell shape and that the development of fruit shape is correlated with cell shape.

Híbridos experimentais de melão rendilhado cultivados em solo e substrato

Este trabalho teve como objetivo verificar o desempenho de híbridos experimentais de melão rendilhado em dois sistemas de cultivo. Foram avaliados seis híbridos experimentais (Jab 07#16, Jab 07#17, Jab 07#23, Jab 07#24, Jab 07#26, Jab 07#28) e três híbridos comerciais (Bônus nº 2, Louis e Fantasy), em dois sistemas de cultivo (em solo e em fibra da casca de coco). O delineamento experimental utilizado foi em blocos casualizados, com nove tratamentos e quatro repetições, para cada experimento, realizando-se análise conjunta dos dados. Foram avaliados: massa média do fruto; produtividade; diâmetro médio transversal do fruto; diâmetro médio longitudinal do fruto; índice de formato de fruto; diâmetro médio transversal do lóculo; diâmetro médio longitudinal do lóculo; índice de formato do lóculo; espessura do mesocarpo; diâmetro médio da inserção do pedúnculo dos frutos; sólidos solúveis; pH; vitamina C; rendilhamento da casca; e firmeza do fruto. Pode-se concluir que, para o sistema de cultivo em fibra da casca de coco, todos os híbridos são recomendados, exceto o Jab 07#17, enquanto os híbridos Bônus nº 2, Fantasy, Jab 07#26, Jab 07#28 e Jab 07#16 devem ser cultivados em solo.

Dynamic QTL and correlated characters of tomato soluble solid content

Two hundred and six F2:3 families from the cross between TD22 and HT-1-1-1-1 were used for dynamic QTL research of tomato soluble solid content and correlative traits, and correlation analysis of soluble solid content (SSC) with fruit weight (FW), fruit shape index (FSI), soluble sugar, vitamin C (VC), and organic acid at three different development stages. The results showed that there were differences in QTL loci for soluble solid content during the three stages of tomato fruit development. Four and eight QTLs were detected in green ripe stage and red ripe stage, respectively. These QTLs showed dynamic changes, and two markers LEaat006 and Tomato|TC162363 were detected in two stages, which might be useful in molecular-marker assisted selection (MAS). The result also showed that there was extremely significant difference in SSC at the three different stages, and its main correlative traits were different at different stages. Soluble solid content was positively correlated with soluble sugar, but negatively correlated with FW at green ripe stage; SSC was positively correlated with soluble sugar and organic acid at yellow ripe stage; SSC was positively correlated with soluble sugar and organic acid, but negatively correlated with fruit weight at red ripe stage. Based on correlation analysis of these traits, linear regression model was constructed. Non-tested varieties were used to test the fitness, and the result showed that it is well fitted, and the fitness is above 95%.

Genetic parameters of yield components and pomologic properties in raspberry seedlings

Over a three-year period yield components and pomologic properties were studied in 20 raspberry seedlings obtained by open pollination of Meeker`s yellow clone. The primary goals of this research were to determine its variability components, coefficients of genetic and phenotypic variation and coefficient of heritability in a broader sense. The analysis of the components of total variance evidenced that higher proportion of genotypic variance was found with fruit shape index (30.84%) and sucrose content (35.61%). The results revealed that genotypic coefficient of variation were less than its corresponding estimates of phenotypic coefficient of variation for all traits which indicated significant role of environment in the expression of these characters. The values of heritability coefficients, in a broader sense, were high except for number of flowers per inflorescens (9.47%), titratable acidity (6.38%) and inverted sugar content (28.88%). Nine characters had h2 in interval from 50 to 80% but for fruit weight and fruit length was greater than 80% which implies the high potential of genetic improvement in those traits.

Fuzzy model for grape sugar content and fruit shape index with irrigation quota as parameter

Using matured Thompson seedless grape under extreme drought conditions and deep pit infiltration irrigation technique, the effect of different irrigation quotas on grape sugar content and fruit shape index was determined. The results show that grape fruit shape index and sugar content follow a normal distribution curve. Fruit shape index and grape sugar content were divided into six groups by fuzzy cluster analysis method. After averaging, a good fuzzy relation was observed between grape fruit shape index and sugar content. A fuzzy model for the fruit shape index and sugar content with irrigation quota as parameter was established. From the model, the relationship between fruit shape index and sugar content as influenced by irrigation quota is distinct. This study further proves the impact of irrigation quota on fruit shape index and sugar content.

GENETIC ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY SUITABLE PARENTS FOR DEVOLEPMENT AND RELASE OF NEW TOMATO HYBRIDS COMBINATIONS ( Lycopersicom esculantum Mill)

A study was conducted on a 7x 7 diallel set of tomato excluding reciprocals to identify desired parents and its cross combinations which appears high productivity and high quality under conditions in Egypt as well as to gather information on genetic behavior of some traits .The results revealed that both general and specific combining abilities were highly significant for all studied traits .therefore, both additive and non additive gene action were important in the expression of these traits .The magnitudes of additive genetic variances were larger than those of the non – additive variances for plant height ,number of branches / plant ,average fruit weight and TSS % .However ,for other traits ,the dominance gene effects play the major role in the inheritance of these traits. Degree of dominance (Ơ2 D/ Ơ2 A)1/2 revealing the importance of partial dominance and that the additive effects played the major role in the inheritance of the plant height ,number of branches / plant ,average fruit weight, fruit shape index and TSS %.Whereas revealing the importance of over dominance in the genetic control of other traits .In addition both broad and narrow sense heritability values were high for all studied traits ,indicating that all traits were highly heritable . Heterosis over mid parents or better parents was present in most of crosses for the studied traits. LHT24 and CLN2498D were good combiner for vegetative traits. Peto 86 was the best combiner for number fruits/ plant and total yield/plant .Marglobe is consider good combiner for average fruit weight and fruit shape index .Advantage -2 was best combiner for TSS. Considering mean performances, SCA effects and hererosis, three hybrids LHT24 X Advantage -2, LHT24 X Floradade and Peto 86 X Advantage -2 may be recommended for heterosis breeding after further evaluation.

Tomato Analyzer: A Useful Software Application to Collect Accurate and Detailed Morphological and Colorimetric Data from Two-dimensional Objects

Measuring fruit morphology and color traits of vegetable and fruit crops in an objective and reproducible way is important for detailed phenotypic analyses of these traits. Tomato Analyzer (TA) is a software program that measures 37 attributes related to two-dimensional shape in a semi-automatic and reproducible manner1,2. Many of these attributes, such as angles at the distal and proximal ends of the fruit and areas of indentation, are difficult to quantify manually. The attributes are organized in ten categories within the software: Basic Measurement, Fruit Shape Index, Blockiness, Homogeneity, Proximal Fruit End Shape, Distal Fruit End Shape, Asymmetry, Internal Eccentricity, Latitudinal Section and Morphometrics. The last category requires neither prior knowledge nor predetermined notions of the shape attributes, so morphometric analysis offers an unbiased option that may be better adapted to high-throughput analyses than attribute analysis. TA also offers the Color Test application that was designed to collect color measurements from scanned images and allow scanning devices to be calibrated using color standards3. TA provides several options to export and analyze shape attribute, morphometric, and color data. The data may be exported to an excel file in batch mode (more than 100 images at one time) or exported as individual images. The user can choose between output that displays the average for each attribute for the objects in each image (including standard deviation), or an output that displays the attribute values for each object on the image. TA has been a valuable and effective tool for indentifying and confirming tomato fruit shape Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL), as well as performing in-depth analyses of the effect of key fruit shape genes on plant morphology. Also, TA can be used to objectively classify fruit into various shape categories. Lastly, fruit shape and color traits in other plant species as well as other plant organs such as leaves and seeds can be evaluated with TA.

Tomato Analyzer: A Useful Software Application to Collect Accurate and Detailed Morphological and Colorimetric Data from Two-dimensional Objects

Measuring fruit morphology and color traits of vegetable and fruit crops in an objective and reproducible way is important for detailed phenotypic analyses of these traits. Tomato Analyzer (TA) is a software program that measures 37 attributes related to two-dimensional shape in a semi-automatic and reproducible manner1,2. Many of these attributes, such as angles at the distal and proximal ends of the fruit and areas of indentation, are difficult to quantify manually. The attributes are organized in ten categories within the software: Basic Measurement, Fruit Shape Index, Blockiness, Homogeneity, Proximal Fruit End Shape, Distal Fruit End Shape, Asymmetry, Internal Eccentricity, Latitudinal Section and Morphometrics. The last category requires neither prior knowledge nor predetermined notions of the shape attributes, so morphometric analysis offers an unbiased option that may be better adapted to high-throughput analyses than attribute analysis. TA also offers the Color Test application that was designed to collect color measurements from scanned images and allow scanning devices to be calibrated using color standards3. TA provides several options to export and analyze shape attribute, morphometric, and color data. The data may be exported to an excel file in batch mode (more than 100 images at one time) or exported as individual images. The user can choose between output that displays the average for each attribute for the objects in each image (including standard deviation), or an output that displays the attribute values for each object on the image. TA has been a valuable and effective tool for indentifying and confirming tomato fruit shape Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL), as well as performing in-depth analyses of the effect of key fruit shape genes on plant morphology. Also, TA can be used to objectively classify fruit into various shape categories. Lastly, fruit shape and color traits in other plant species as well as other plant organs such as leaves and seeds can be evaluated with TA.

Yield and fruit quality of sweet pepper in response to fertilisation with Ca2+ and K+

The influence of Ca2+ and K+ levels on fruit yield and quality of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Orlando) plants under hydroponic culture has been investigated. The treatments consisted of three concentrations of Ca2+ (1.5, 4 and 8 mmol/L) and K+ (2.5, 7 and 12 mmol/L) that were imposed separately. Fruit yield parameters and different fruit quality parameters, as well as dry matter production and mineral composition in individual parts of the plant, were determined. The increase of Ca2+ in the root medium increased the marketable yield from 1.67 to 2.38 kg/plant, mainly due to an increase in the number of fruits per plant, while higher K+ levels decreased marketable yield from 2.2 to 1.66 kg/plant, due to decreases in the number of fruits per plant and the mean fruit weight. With respect to fruit quality, fruit shape index and, therefore, pepper fruit appearance improved with Ca2+ addition to the root medium. Fertilization with K+ increased fruit acidity and decreased maturity index, which could improve fruit storability. Low Ca2+ or high K+ levels reduced both root and shoot dry matter. Therefore, an adequate management of fertilization with Ca2+ and K+ could improve the yield and fruit quality of pepper grown in soilless culture.

Agroecological variation in the fruits and nuts of shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn.) in Nigeria

A basic understanding of the relationships between key phenotypic characters of the shea butter tree is considered a crucial step to its genetic improvement. As such fruit samples of the shea butter tree, Vitellaria paradoxa, were collected from nine locations in July, 2006, to determine the fruit and nut characteristics of the species. The choice of the locations was informed by the need to have as broad a picture of the trait diversity as possible. The nine locations covered were Akwanga, Ilorin, Lokoja, Makurdi, Minna (in the Southern Guinea Savanna), Jalingo, Kachia (in the Northern Guinea Savanna), Kano and Yola (in the Sudan Savanna), recognized as the main shea butter tree belt in Nigeria. Analysis of variance indicated significant (P < 0.05) variations in fruit and nut traits across agro-ecologies and specific locations (representing individual accessions). The Northern Guinea Savanna accessions had higher values for nut weight, nut length kernel weight and fruit weight. The Southern Guinea Savanna fruits were, however, superior in percent pulp weight. Nuts sourced from Akwanga were comparatively heavier and longer, had wider diameters, heavier kernels and higher percent testa weights which did not differ from those of Minna. Also fruits from Akwanga had significantly (P < 0.05) higher values for fruit length, fruit diameter, fruit weight and pulp weight. The Lokoja accession was superior to the rest in percent pulp weight, but it recorded least nut weight and nut length values. Nut shape index varied from 2.3 (Makurdi) to 1.5 (Jalingo). Nuts from Akwanga, Jalingo and Kachia had wide variation in nut weight in contrast to those from Lokoja, Makurdi and Yola (that were relatively similar). Fruit length had significantly (P < 0.05) positive relationship with pulp weight, fruit weight and fruit diameter. Nut diameter, however, had a negative relationship with percent pulp weight. A strong influence of some environmental variables on certain phenotypic traits was detected. Principal components analysis indicated nut weight, nut shape index, percent pulp weight and fruit shape index as the key discriminant variables for grouping shea butter fruit and nut in Nigeria. Results of this study indicated considerable diversity in fruit and nut traits of the shea butter tree in Nigeria, suggesting the possibility of selection for desirable traits.