Fruit-feeding Butterflies Research Articles

Relative contribution of neutral and deterministic processes in shaping fruit-feeding butterfly assemblages in Afrotropical forests.

The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography has gained the status of a quantitative null model for explaining patterns in ecological (meta)communities. The theory assumes that individuals of trophically similar species are functionally equivalent. We empirically evaluate the relative contribution of neutral and deterministic processes in shaping fruit‐feeding butterfly assemblages in three tropical forests in Africa, using both direct (confronting the neutral model with species abundance data) and indirect approaches (testing the predictions of neutral theory using data other than species abundance distributions). Abundance data were obtained by sampling butterflies using banana baited traps set at the forest canopy and understorey strata. Our results indicate a clear consistency in the kind of species or species groups observed at either the canopy or understorey in the three studied communities. Furthermore, we found significant correlation between some flight‐related morphological traits and species abundance at the forest canopy, but not at the understorey. Neutral theory's contribution to explaining our data lies largely in identifying dispersal limitation as a key process regulating fruit‐feeding butterfly community structure. Our study illustrates that using species abundance data alone in evaluating neutral theory can be informative, but is insufficient. Species‐level information such as habitat preference, host plants, geographical distribution, and phylogeny is essential in elucidating the processes that regulate biodiversity community structures and patterns.

Food for thought. Rainforest carrion-feeding butterflies are more sensitive indicators of disturbance history than fruit feeders

Tropical forests have, and in many areas continue to experience both severe and subtle forms of human disturbance; most commonly from hunting, logging and clearance for agriculture. The ability to detect a full range of impacts is essential to understanding how biodiversity responds to human disturbance. Since monitoring the entire biodiversity of a tropical forest is an impossible task, specific groups of biodiversity are often used as biological indicators. Due to their relative ease in detection and identification, their sensitivity to environmental change and their short generation time, butterflies are suggested to be one of the most effective biodiversity indicators for tropical forest monitoring. However, most biodiversity monitoring of tropical ecosystems using butterflies relies only on one sub-group, the fruit-feeding butterflies, or Nymphalidae. Here we assess for the first time if the use of carrion-feeding butterfly communities might improve our ability to detect and monitor human impacts and conservation management outcomes in tropical forests. We analysed species richness, abundance and community composition of rainforest fruit and carrion butterfly communities to see how effectively they detect known differences in forest disturbance history, between three different vertical strata of rainforest, and assess whether they provide stable results across different seasons. We found that compared to fruit-feeding butterflies, sampling carrion-feeders detected greater species richness and abundance for the same survey effort, detected more pronounced effects of known differences in historic disturbance, and showed greater temporal stability in biodiversity patterns across the year. We also identify for the first time a series of indicator butterfly species and tribes that could be used as biological indicators to study biodiversity responses to human disturbance and differences across vertical strata of the rainforest. We therefore suggest that carrion-feeding butterfly communities will be a powerful addition to the family of indicators groups that are available for monitoring the impacts of human disturbance on tropical biodiversity.

High butterfly beta diversity between Brazilian cerrado and cerrado–caatinga transition zones

Tropical dry forests are among the most diverse and threatened habitats in the world, yet they are rarely protected and remain poorly studied. In Brazil, dry forests are naturally fragmented and embedded within various biomes, thus making it important to assess biotic homogeneity among geographically separated forest fragments. We sampled 7732 individuals belonging to 48 species to quantify the diversity of fruit-feeding butterfly communities at four Brazilian dry forest sites, and found differences in community structure between northern and central sites. Species richness per plot was the same in both areas, but abundance per plot was higher in northern sites. Species composition differed between sites mostly due to species of Satyrinae. Additive partitioning showed that beta diversity corresponded to 70.1% of all diversity. Rather than species loss, beta diversity primarily represented species turnover that was potentially driven by differences in the surrounding habitats. Butterfly community composition and abundance were influenced by vegetation where abundance increased with tree density and basal area, and decreased with the average tree height. Butterfly species richness and abundance were higher in the wet season than in the dry season, and all species sampled in the dry season were present in the wet season. Differences in community structure across relatively short geographic distances in the same type of habitat highlight the importance of conserving tropical dry forest fragments to ensure the maintenance of butterfly diversity and, presumably, other insects.

Diversity of fruit-feeding butterflies (Nymphalidae) along a gradient of tropical rainforest succession in Borneo with some remarks on the problem of "pseudoreplicates"

Diversity of fruit-feeding butterflies (Nymphalidae) along a gradient of tropical rainforest succession in Borneo with some remarks on the problem of "pseudoreplicates"

Monitoring fruit-feeding butterfly assemblages in two vertical strata in seasonal Atlantic Forest: temporal species turnover is lower in the canopy

Abstract:To address how seasonality affects the richness and abundance of tropical insects, we compared the canopy and understorey communities of fruit-feeding butterflies in a seasonal Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil. Butterflies were sampled over 1 y using a standardized design with baited traps. A total of 2047 individuals in 69 species were recorded (1415 in the canopy, 632 in the understorey). Clear differences were found between canopy and understorey, with significantly higher butterfly abundances in the canopy. We observed two marked peaks of abundance and richness in both strata; one at the transition from dry to the wet seasons, and the other at the transition from wet to dry seasons. We found lower species turnover throughout the year in the canopy. We interpret this as evidence that temperature is more important than rainfall in explaining the yearly variation of abundance in vertical strata. The higher temperatures found in the canopy may allow butterflies to maintain activity in this stratum all year round, whereas the understorey is subject to colder temperatures, thus presenting a higher species turnover. These results improve our understanding of diversity gradients between evergreen and seasonal tropical forests, allowing insights into how climate and beta diversity gradients interact.

Coevolution between flight morphology, vertical stratification and sexual dimorphism: what can we learn from tropical butterflies?

Occurrence patterns are partly shaped by the affinity of species with habitat conditions. For winged organisms, flight-related attributes are vital for ecological performance. However, due to the different reproductive roles of each sex, we expect divergence in flight energy budget, and consequently different selection responses between sexes. We used tropical frugivorous butterflies as models to investigate coevolution between flight morphology, sex dimorphism and vertical stratification. We studied 94 species of Amazonian fruit-feeding butterflies sampled in seven sites across 3341ha. We used wing-thorax ratio as a proxy for flight capacity and hierarchical Bayesian modelling to estimate stratum preference. We detected a strong phylogenetic signal in wing-thorax ratio in both sexes. Stouter fast-flying species preferred the canopy, whereas more slender slow-flying species preferred the understorey. However, this relationship was stronger in females than in males, suggesting that female phenotype associates more intimately with habitat conditions. Within species, males were stouter than females and sexual dimorphism was sharper in understorey species. Because trait-habitat relationships were independent from phylogeny, the matching between flight morphology and stratum preference is more likely to reflect adaptive radiation than shared ancestry. This study sheds light on the impact of flight and sexual dimorphism on the evolution and ecological adaptation of flying organisms.

Diversity of fruit-feeding butterflies in a mountaintop archipelago of rainforest.

We provide the first description of the effects of local vegetation and landscape structure on the fruit-feeding butterfly community of a natural archipelago of montane rainforest islands in the Serra do Espinhaço, southeastern Brazil. Butterflies were collected with bait traps in eleven forest islands through both dry and rainy seasons for two consecutive years. The influence of local and landscape parameters and seasonality on butterfly species richness, abundance and composition were analyzed. We also examined the partitioning and decomposition of temporal and spatial beta diversity. Five hundred and twelve fruit-feeding butterflies belonging to thirty-four species were recorded. Butterfly species richness and abundance were higher on islands with greater canopy openness in the dry season. On the other hand, islands with greater understory coverage hosted higher species richness in the rainy season. Instead, the butterfly species richness was higher with lower understory coverage in the dry season. Butterfly abundance was not influenced by understory cover. The landscape metrics of area and isolation had no effect on species richness and abundance. The composition of butterfly communities in the forest islands was not randomly structured. The butterfly communities were dependent on local and landscape effects, and the mechanism of turnover was the main source of variation in β diversity. The preservation of this mountain rainforest island complex is vital for the maintenance of fruit-feeding butterfly community; one island does not reflect the diversity found in the whole archipelago.

Positive forestry: The effect of rubber tree plantations on fruit feeding butterfly assemblages in the Brazilian Atlantic forest

Agroforestry systems have increased in area in tropical regions in recent decades and many studies have sought to evaluate their impact on native biodiversity. Yet, few have assessed the impact of perennial plantations such as rubber-tree harvesting on native biodiversity. The goal of our study was to assess the effect of rubber tree plantations on fruit-feeding butterflies of the endangered Brazilian Atlantic Forest in Brazil. To do so, we sampled fruit- feeding butterfly species in a landscape mosaic composed of primary forest, rubber tree plantations under two management regimes (active production with intense management and undergrowth suppression and low management plantations with no undergrowth suppression), and forest fragments immersed in rubber tree plantation matrix. By trap-baiting butterflies for a year, we captured 5800 individuals of 85 butterfly species. Species richness was higher in unmanaged (no growth suppression) plantation and forest fragments (57–60 species) and lower in managed plantation (with growth suppression) (47) and primary forest (43). Ordination analysis suggests three main community groups formed by primary forest samples, a cluster combining unmanaged plantation and fragments, and managed plantation. There was substantial variation in butterfly abundance in the landscape, but our data suggest that several forest specialists species are able to occur along the mosaic on the landscape, and despite differences in management the entire landscape can contribute for a rich biota. Loss of understory vegetation led to simplified communities, with skewed dominance of a few species. By allowing understory development, a low impact management can provide adequate habitat for native butterflies. Yet, current rubber tree plantation technology does not normally use this method, opting to use the high management approach instead. We hypothesize that these minimally benign plantations may serve as conduits for butterflies in forest patches. Thus, we suggest that rubber tree plantations near Atlantic forest fragments should encourage understory development and establish a landscape mosaic, allowing forest fragments immersed in plantation matrix to be able to exchange individuals and colonize more complex plantation habitat. Intensive suppression of undergrowth should be avoided, except for trail maintenance, and isolation of fragments in this matrix should be kept to a minimum. If undergrowth suppression cannot be avoided, then establishment of stepping stones in plantation matrix should be encouraged to reduce isolation of fragments.

The successional pathway of the tree community and how it shapes the fruit-feeding butterfly community in an Afrotropical forest

Abstract:The relative importance of different bottom-up-mediated effects in shaping insect communities in tropical secondary forests are poorly understood. Here, we explore the roles of vegetation structure, forest age, local topography (valley vs. hill top) and soil variables in predicting fruit-feeding butterfly and tree community composition, and tree community composition in predicting fruit-feeding butterfly community composition, in different-aged naturally regenerating and primary forests of Kibale National Park, Uganda. We also examine which variables are best predictors of fruit-feeding butterfly species richness or diversity. Butterflies (88 species) were sampled with a banana-baited trap and trees (98 taxa) with a 40 × 20-m sampling plot at 80 sampling sites. The environmental variables explained 31% of the variation in the tree community composition, the best predictors being local topography, forest age and cover of Acanthus pubescens (a shrub possibly arresting succession). The fruit-feeding butterfly community composition was better predicted by tree community composition (explaining 10% of the variation) rather than vegetation structure, local topography or soil factors. Environmental variables and tree species richness (or diversity) were poor predictors of butterfly species richness (or diversity). Our results emphasize the importance of tree community to recovery of herbivorous insect communities in tropical secondary forests.

The impacts of recurrent fires on diversity of fruit-feeding butterflies in a south-eastern Amazon forest

Abstract:In the south-eastern Amazon, positive feedbacks between land use and severe weather events are increasing the frequency and intensity of fires, threatening local biodiversity. We sampled fruit-feeding butterflies in experimental plots in a south-eastern Amazon forest: one control plot, one plot burned every 3 y, one plot burned yearly. We also measured environmental parameters (canopy cover, temperature, humidity). Our results show no significant differences in overall species richness between plots (34, 37 and 33 species respectively), although richness was lower in burned plots during the dry season. We found significant differences in community composition and structure between control and burned plots, but not between burned treatments. In the control plot, forest-specialist species represented 64% of total abundance, decreasing to 50% in burned every 3 y and 54% in yearly burned plots. Savanna specialist species were absent in the control plot, but represented respectively 8% and 3% of total abundance in burned plots. The best predictor of the change in spatial community patterns and abundance of forest specialists was canopy cover. Although we found high resilience to forest burning in many species, our study suggests that fire disturbance can still be a threat to forest specialists due to changes in microclimate.

An observation on the fruit feeding behavior of butterflies in some areas of Bangladesh

Very little information has been found about the behavior of fruit feeding butterflies in Bangladesh. So this was an attempt to know about the fruit feeding behavior of butterflies from different areas of Bangladesh. The study was conducted during June 2014 to September 2015. A total of 11 species and 53 individuals of butterflies of two families feeding on 11 species on the fruits of 11 families were reported. The greatest number of species (five) fed on Averrhoa carambola, Psidium guajava and Mangifera indica followed by Ananas comosus feeding by two species and remaining fruit species feeding by one species of butterfly

Sampling effort and common species: Optimizing surveys of understorey fruit-feeding butterflies in the Central Amazon

Surveys on tropical invertebrates must gather as much information as possible over the shortest period, mainly because of financial limitations and hyperdiversity. Fruit-feeding butterflies in the subfamilies Biblidinae, Charaxinae, Nymphalinae and Satyrinae (Nymphalidae) are attracted to decaying material and can be sampled with standardized methodologies, but (1) some groups can be difficult to collect, despite being quite common in Amazonian forest understorey; moreover, (2) the duration of the sampling period is not consistent among studies and (3) the sufficient effort for financially limited projects remains unknown. With this study, we aimed to fulfill points 1–3 in order to recommend a less costly protocol for monitoring purposes in the Amazon. In 25km2 of rainforest in the state of Amazonas, Brazil, we evaluated the performance of sampling schemes for these butterflies (four, three, two and one visit in 250m-long plots), using both nets and bait traps, while considering reductions in sampling effort and the removal of rare and infrequent taxa to optimize field and laboratory work. Reduced-effort schemes are only validated if they reflect both taxonomic and ecological information provided by the maximum effort. Procrustes superimposition was used to estimate the dissimilarity in the spatial distribution of species between schemes. Spatial turnover in herb, liana, palm tree and diameter-at-breast-height>10cm tree species composition was used as predictor for the butterfly community through linear regressions. The three-visit scheme was sufficient to retrieve high species similarity and the ecological patterns observed with maximum effort. The two-visit scheme lost a significant amount of information on species composition similarity, but recovered stronger environmental relationships than those observed with the four-visit scheme. The removal of uncommon species did not affect the ecological response of the community, thereby suggesting that common species are driving the spatial patterns of the studied butterflies. Thus, large reductions in costs by reducing sampling effort could be achieved with relatively little loss of information on the species turnover of butterflies and their relationships with the environment. The proposed sampling protocols with reduced effort will allow projects to use their time and financial supply more effectively, showing that cost-effective shortcuts for biodiversity assessments can be useful for conservation, biomonitoring and land use management.

Fruit-feeding butterflies in edge-dominated habitats: community structure, species persistence and cascade effect

As old-growth forests are converted into edge-affected habitats, a substantial proportion of tropical biodiversity is potentially threatened. Here, we examine a comprehensive set of community-level attributes of fruit-feeding butterfly assemblages inhabiting edge-affected habitats in a fragmented Atlantic forest landscape devoted to sugar cane production. We also explored whether the consequences of habitat loss and fragmentation can interact and cause cascading ecosystem changes, with the pervasive simplification of tree assemblages inhabiting edge-dominated habitats, altering fruit-feeding butterfly persistence. Butterflies were sampled in three forest habitats: small fragments, forest edges and patches of forest interior of a primary forest fragment. Assemblage attributes, including taxonomic composition, correlated to some patch (patch size) and landscape (such as forest cover) metrics as well as habitat structure (tree density and richness). Fruit-feeding butterfly assemblages in the forest interior differed from those in small fragments due to an increased abundance of edge-specialist species. On the other hand, several forest-dependent species were missing in both small fragments and forest edges. Our results suggest that edge-affected habitats dominated by pioneer tree species support taxonomically distinct assemblages, including the presence of disturbance-adapted species, and butterfly community structure is highly sensitive to fragmentation- and plant-related variables, such as forest cover and pioneer tree species. In this way, while the establishment of human-modified landscapes probably results in the local extirpation of forest-dependent species, it allows the persistence of disturbance-adapted species. Thus, forest-dependent species conservation and the plant–animal interaction webs they support could be improved by retaining a significant amount of core forest habitat.

Limited erosion of genetic and species diversity from small forest patches: Sacred forest groves in an Afrotropical biodiversity hotspot have high conservation value for butterflies

Sacred forest groves are often located in some of the world's hottest hotspots of biodiversity, and consequently have high potential conservation value. Recent efforts to quantify their value have focused nearly exclusively on a single component of diversity, species diversity within communities, which may or may not be an effective proxy for a second fundamental component of diversity, genetic diversity within populations. We studied fruit-feeding butterfly communities to simultaneously assess to what extent five small sacred groves have retained the level of species and genetic diversity found in two much larger forest reserves. We additionally evaluate whether measures correlate across habitat fragments to investigate how closely these two components of diversity mirror each other. We quantified the diversity and composition of the fruit-feeding butterfly communities at each site and also the haplotype diversity within three specific species that differ with respect to their sensitivity to habitat fragmentation. Of the multiple measures of species and genetic diversity computed, only rarefied species richness was correlated with forest fragment size and even in this case the relationship was weak. Importantly, the limited decline in species richness documented in the sacred groves was not due to species replacements, whereby common, broadly distributed, generalists supplanted more vulnerable species in these communities. Although similar processes are known to drive declines in both species and gene diversity, we found only limited evidence of positive species-genetic diversity correlations (SGDCs), and only in the species most sensitive to fragmentation. Thus, a conservation strategy that emphasizes species complementarity or richness may be ineffective at capturing other critical levels of biodiversity. Overall, our findings demonstrate that even very small forest patches can have a conservation value that rivals that of much larger forest reserves. The implementation of official national and international initiatives that preserve and strengthen existing community-based conservation practices is critically needed to ensure that indigenous conservation areas persist into the future.

Combining Taxonomic and Functional Approaches to Unravel the Spatial Distribution of an Amazonian Butterfly Community.

This study investigated the spatial distribution of an Amazonian fruit-feeding butterfly assemblage by linking species taxonomic and functional approaches. We hypothesized that: 1) vegetation richness (i.e., resources) and abundance of insectivorous birds (i.e., predators) should drive changes in butterfly taxonomic composition, 2) larval diet breadth should decrease with increase of plant species richness, 3) small-sized adults should be favored by higher abundance of birds, and 4) communities with eyespot markings should be able to exploit areas with higher predation pressure. Fruit-feeding butterflies were sampled with bait traps and insect nets across 25 km(2) of an Amazonian ombrophilous forest in Brazil. We measured larval diet breadth, adult body size, and wing marking of all butterflies. Our results showed that plant species richness explained most of the variation in butterfly taxonomic turnover. Also, community average diet breadth decreased with increase of plant species richness, which supports our expectations. In contrast, community average body size increased with the abundance of birds, refuting our hypothesis. We detected no influence of environmental gradients on the occurrence of species with eyespot markings. The association between butterfly taxonomic and functional composition points to a mediator role of the functional traits in the environmental filtering of butterflies. The incorporation of the functional approach into the analyses allowed for the detection of relationships that were not observed using a strictly taxonomic perspective and provided an extra insight into comprehending the potential adaptive strategies of butterflies.

Temporal Dynamics of Fruit-Feeding Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Two Habitats in a Seasonal Brazilian Environment

The Cerrado Biome comprises many habitats, the most common being the savanna type. This biome presents an intense dry season that imposes difficulties on organism survival. The Cerrado’s wet season is the period of greatest abundance and richness of species, including the Lepidoptera. In Brazil, most studies on Nymphalidae seasonality have been conducted in biomes other than the Cerrado. Thus, the pattern of the Nymphalidae seasonality in the Cerrado is unknown. The aim of this study was to describe the temporal dynamics of these butterflies in both savanna and gallery forest habitats in the Cerrado, comparing our findings to those previously reported from other Brazilian biomes, and to discuss the effects of weather and habitat structure on temporal dynamics. Thirty bait-traps were distributed in 2 vertical strata (understory and canopy) in each habitat type (savanna and gallery forest; thus, 60 bait-traps were distributed during 6 d each month from Jul 2012 to Jun 2013. In total, 3,459 individuals of 62 species were captured. The transition between the wet and dry season presented the greatest abundance and species richness and was the period of lowest evenness in the Nymphalidae community. Two distinct assemblages were found in the savanna and gallery forest. Moreover, greater butterfly species turnover was found over time in the gallery forest than in the savanna habitat. These results highlight the importance of climatic seasons, plant phenology, and habitat structure as important predictors of the temporal dynamics of these butterflies in the Cerrado Biome. Furthermore, the floristic and structural distinctiveness of the savanna and gallery forest, and the biological requirements of the butterfly species, could explain a large portion of the species turnover observed in the gallery forest.

Nutrient acquisition across a dietary shift: fruit feeding butterflies crave amino acids, nectivores seek salt.

Evolutionary dietary shifts have major ecological consequences. One likely consequence is a change in nutrient limitation-some nutrients become more abundant in the diet, others become more scarce. Individuals' behavior should change accordingly to match this new limitation regime: they should seek out nutrients that are deficient in the new diet. We investigated the relationship between diet and responses to nutrients using adult Costa Rican butterflies with contrasting feeding habits, testing the hypothesis that animals will respond more positively to nutrients that are scarcer in their diets. Via literature searches and our own data, we showed that nitrogen and sodium are both at lower concentration in nectar than in fruit. We therefore assessed butterflies' acceptance of sodium and four nitrogenous compounds that ranged in complexity from inorganic nitrogen (ammonium chloride) to protein (albumin). We captured wild butterflies, offered them aqueous solutions of each substance, and recorded whether they accepted (drank) or rejected each substance. Support for our hypothesis was mixed. Across the sexes, frugivores were four times more likely to accept amino acids (hydrolyzed casein) than nectivores, in opposition to expectation. In males, nectivores accepted sodium almost three times more frequently than frugivores, supporting expectations. Together, these results suggest that in butterflies, becoming frugivorous is associated with an increased receptivity to amino acids and decreased receptivity to sodium. Nectivory and frugivory are widespread feeding strategies in organisms as diverse as insects, birds, and bats; our results suggest that these feeding strategies may put different pressures on how animals fulfill their nutritional requirements.

Vertical distribution of fruit-feeding butterflies with evidence of sex-specific differences in a Tanzanian forest

Tropical forests accommodate rich species diversity, particularly among insects. Habitat heterogeneity along the vertical gradient extending from the forest understorey to the tree canopy influences diversity. The vertical distribution of forest insects is poorly understood across Africa, most especially eastern Africa. Food-baited traps were used to study the vertical stratification of adult fruit-feeding nymphalid butterflies in Mtai Forest Reserve, north-eastern Tanzania. Traps were located in the forest canopy and understorey. A total of 277 individuals of 24 species were captured. Species composition differed by trap locations: 33% of the species captured were found in both the canopy and understorey strata; however, significantly more species were captured in the understorey (54%) than canopy (13%). Males were significantly more abundant than females and captured in both strata. A greater proportion of females were captured in the understorey than the canopy. The time of day affected capture rates, with more individuals caught in the afternoon; however, there was no association between the time period and the sex of individuals captured in canopy versus understorey locations. Understanding how the sexes of butterflies vary in understorey versus canopy offers new biological insights into the vertical stratification of insects. Resume Les forets tropicales hebergent une riche diversite d'especes, specialement des insectes. L'heterogeneite de l'habitat suivant le gradient vertical qui va du sous-bois jusqu’a la canopee des arbres influence cette diversite. La distribution verticale des insectes forestiers est mal connue en Afrique, specialement en Afrique de l'Est. Nous avons utilise des pieges appâtes avec de la nourriture pour etudier la stratification verticale de papillons nymphalides frugivores adultes dans la Reserve Forestiere de Mtai, dans le nord de la Tanzanie. Les pieges ont ete places dans la canopee et dans les sous-bois forestiers. Un total de 277 individus ont ete captures, appartenant a 24 especes. La composition des especes differait selon l'emplacement du piege : 33% des especes se trouvaient dans la canopee et a l’etage des sous-bois, mais il y eut plus d'especes capturees dans le sous-bois (54%) que dans la canopee (13%). Les mâles etaient significativement plus nombreux que les femelles et etaient captures aux deux niveaux. Une plus grande proportion de femelles etaient capturees dans le sous-bois que dans la canopee. L'heure de la journee affectait le taux de captures, et plus d'individus etaient captures l'apres-midi. Cependant, il n'y avait pas de lien entre l'heure et le sexe des individus captures dans la canopee vs dans le sous-bois. Le fait de comprendre comment le sexe des papillons varie dans le sous-bois par rapport a la canopee offre un nouvel apercu biologique de la stratification verticale des insectes.

Fruit-feeding butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) of the Área de Proteção Especial Manancial Mutuca, Nova Lima and Species list for the Region of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil

A study of the assembly of fruit-feeding butterflies in the Área de Proteção Especial Manancial Mutuca, Nova Lima, MG was conducted with the goal of inventorying the species of the site. Forty-two traps were used to attract fruit-feeding butterflies, divided between Cerrado (rupestrian field) and riparian vegetation, monthly over one year. 2245 butterflies, which belonged to 63 species, were recorded. Of this total, fourty-eight species were collected in the Cerrado, twenty-one exclusively in this environment, forty-two in riparian forest, fifteen being exclusive to this environment, and twenty-seven species were sampled in both environments. From the total of sampled species, thirty-five were considered rare, eight accessory species, and twenty constant species. Prepona deiphile deiphile (Charaxine) is classified as vulnerable on the Minas Gerais’ list and on the national list of threatened species. The collector curve showed no clear trend to stabilization, suggesting that there are species still not sampled in the study area. Adding the data from field sampling to the information on species occurrence in the literature and in entomological collections, the current number of frugivorous butterflies species for the region of Belo Horizonte is 104. This result foregrounds the importance of APE Mutuca for maintaning a rich fauna of frugivorous butterflies to the area.

Vertical and temporal variability in the probability of detection of fruit-feeding butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) in tropical forest

One important source of variation present in all biodiversity sampling protocols is species detection probability (i.e. the probability of observing a species, given that it is present at a site). In tropical forests, many species have very low probability of detection, and thus they can be easily overlooked. Measuring the detection probability (detectability) of these species is important to determine the sampling effort required to accurately record them. In the present study, the variation of detectability of fruit-feeding butterflies and moths between strata (understory vs. canopy), temporally across sampling months, and in relation to observed abundance were examined in the Amazon and Atlantic forests using models of logistic regression. These results enabled the estimation of the sampling effort required to detect a given fraction of the total assemblage. Species detectability was positively correlated with observed abundance for both butterflies and moths. In the Amazon, most species were more detectable in a specific stratum (canopy or understory). Biblidinae, Charaxinae and Satyrini showed temporal variation in detection probability in Atlantic Forest, with distinct peaks during July–August, November, and March. In contrast, Brassolini and Coeini showed peak detectability in January and March, respectively. The vertical and temporal variation in detection probability means that sampling effort must be applied strategically to the correct seasons and strata to improve the accuracy of results. The estimated minimum sampling effort to detect 70% of the species present in these tropical forests is 428 trap-days in Atlantic Forest and 1435 trap-days in the Central Amazon forest.