Frost Research Articles

Frost Characterization for the Altiplano, Valleys and Chaco Regions of Bolivia

The analysis focused on frost events in the Altiplano, Valles, and Chaco regions of Bolivia, with an emphasis on sub-zero temperatures and related atmospheric patterns to identify the predominant type of frost. A retrospective, observational, and longitudinal design was employed to analyze minimum temperatures from nine meteorological stations between 2005 and 2019. Radiative frosts in the Altiplano showed stability in minimum temperatures from April to October, with low variability and the absence of outliers, while variability was higher in the Valles and Chaco regions. Frost events were more frequent and severe from May to August, with the Altiplano being the most affected region. Satellite imagery and atmospheric reanalysis data from 2010 to 2019 were used for the visual interpretation of atmospheric patterns. A mixed-method approach—quantitative for the statistical analysis of minimum temperatures and qualitative for image interpretation—identified 24 advection frost events between 2010 and 2019, primarily in July and August, associated with high-pressure systems over the Atlantic and Pacific. The Chaco region was the most affected by advection frosts, followed by the Altiplano and the Valles. These findings underscore the importance of spatial and temporal variability in frost occurrence and the need for regional strategies to manage climate risk. It is concluded that altitude, along with factors such as solar radiation, thermal inversion, and wind, is key in frost formation, with radiative frosts being the most common, although advection frosts are also significant, especially under cold front conditions.

Effects of Different Shade Treatments on the Epidermal Wax Deposition of Hosta Genotypes with Different Glaucousness of Leaf Surface

Epidermal wax is strategically situated at the interface between plants and air; therefore, it plays a key role in plants’ interactions with their surroundings. It is also unstable and susceptible to light intensity. Hosta plants are shade-loving herbs with admirable flowers and leaves. Hosta ‘Halcyon’ and Hosta ensata F. Maek. are two species of Hosta with a glaucous and a glossy appearance, respectively. Light intensity can affect the composition of epicuticular wax on the leaf surface, which influences the leaf color phenotype and ornamental value. In this paper, the crystal micromorphology, content, and components of epicuticular wax on the leaves of two species of Hosta under different light conditions (10%-, 30%-, 50%-, 70%-, and 100%-intensity sunlight, relative light intensity (RLI)) have been studied using pot experiments. The results indicate that the epicuticular wax crystals of H. ‘Halcyon’ and H. ensata are tubular and platelet-like, respectively. The wax crystals of H. ‘Halcyon’ melted and formed a thick crust under 100% RLI, and those of H. ensata melted and formed a thick crust under 70% and 100% RLI conditions. The primary ingredients of the epicuticular wax of the two species of Hosta contained primary alcohols, alkanes, fatty acids, and esters; β-diketones were only detected in H. ‘Halcyon’. The quantity of epicuticular wax of H. ‘Halcyon’ reduced at first and then increased with an RLI increase, achieving its lowest value at 50% RLI, but that of H. ensata declined little by little. The amounts of C28 primary alcohols, C31 alkanes, and C18 fatty acids were significantly higher than those of other carbon atoms in the two genotypes of Hosta. The C31β-diketones content decreased with the increase in light intensity, which caused the white frost phenotype to gradually weaken in H. ‘Halcyon’.

Heat Transfer Process of the Tea Plant under the Action of Air Disturbance Frost Protection

Wind machines based on the air disturbance method are progressively employed to mitigate frost damage within the agricultural machinery frost protection. These devices are utilized during radiative frost nights to disrupt near-surface thermal inversion through air mixing. Despite this application, the fundamental mechanisms underlying these mixing processes are not well comprehended. In this research, numerical simulations were conducted using COMSOL Multiphysics software version 6.0 to simulate the flow and heat transfer processes between the thermal airflow and both the tea canopy and stems. The results indicated that due to obstruction from the canopy cross-section, the airflow velocity on the contact surface rapidly increased. As the airflow further progressed, the high-speed region of the airflow gradually approached the canopy surface. Turbulent kinetic energy increased initially on the windward side of the canopy cross-section and near the top interface. On the windward side of the canopy, due to the initial impact of the thermal airflow, rapid heating occurred, resulting in a noticeable temperature difference between the windward and leeward sides within a short period. In the interaction between airflow and stems, with increasing airflow velocity, fluctuations and the shedding of wake occurred on the leeward side of the stems. The maximum sensible heat flux at the windward vertex of the stem increased significantly with airflow velocity. At an airflow velocity of 2.0 m/s, the maximum heat flux value was 2.37 times that of an airflow velocity of 1.0 m/s. This research utilized simulation methods to study the interaction between airflow and tea canopy and stems in frost protection, laying the foundation for further research on the energy distribution in tea ecosystem under the disturbance of airflow for frost protection.

Study on the white frost formation mechanism during storage of Phyllanthus emblica Linn. fruit based on component analysis and spatial metabolomics

The Phyllanthus emblica Linn. fruit (PEF) is a well-known medicinal and food homologous item in tropical Southeast Asian. During the drying and storing processes, some PEF will grow white frost on its surface, which is typically taken as a sign of greater quality. However, the material basis and formation mechanism of white frost on PEF surfaces are currently unclear, and there is no sufficient evidence to support the correlation between white frost on PEF surfaces and their quality. In this paper, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to study the differences in active ingredient content of PEF medicinal materials with and without frost. The microstructure and elemental composition of white frost were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) was used to analysis the main functional groups in white frost. The ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) combined with UNIFI database, EDS and FT-IR results, and reference materials were used to identify the chemical composition of white frost. The exocarp of PEF before and after drying and storage was analyzed by spatial metabolomics using desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) mass spectrometry imaging system to reveal the formation mechanism of white frost on the surface of PEF. The results found that the PEF with frost have higher levels of active ingredients than those without frost. EDS and FT-IR results show that white frost is mainly composed of C, O, K elements, and contains a large number of phenolic hydroxyl, carboxyl etc. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS results found that the main components of white frost were organic acids, fatty acids, and tannins, including quality markers such as gallic acid and ellagic acid etc. Spatial metabolomics research found that the white frost formation mechanism mainly involved in the ascorbate and aldarate metabolism, cutin, suberin and wax biosynthesis, citrate cycle (TCA cycle) and biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acid. This study reveals the material basis, formation mechanism, and relationship between the surface white frost of PEF and the quality of medicinal materials, providing valuable information for the quality evaluation of PEF.

Physical properties of Devonian limestones from selected deposits in the context of frost resistance

Physical properties of Devonian limestones from selected deposits in the context of frost resistance

Detecting emerging frost crystals on leaf surfaces using microscopic imaging

Natural radiation frost is a potential threat or even a serious disaster during the growth of agricultural crops. To avoid or reduce the risk of frost damage to crops, frost detection especially the timely and real-time detection of emerging frost crystals, is of great importance in agricultural frost protection. Therefore, this paper proposes an object detection model Frost-YOLOv5 based on microscopic imaging of emerging frost crystals on the leaf surface. Firstly, a YOLOv5 initial detection model was established by observing frost under natural conditions and using microscopic cameras to acquire images of emerging frost crystals formed on the leaf surface. From these images, the channel attention mechanism and spatial attention mechanism were combined to construct a small frost crystal feature depth extraction network. Secondly, the RGB three-channel Wiener filtering algorithm was used to recover the noise source images from motion blur in the frost crystal dataset. Through experimental validation on different light intensities and different frost crystal cluster datasets, the Frost-YOLOv5 model all showed better robustness compared with various object detection algorithms, and its frost crystal detection accuracy P and average accuracy AP values were 98.89% and 81.72%, respectively. Ultimately, the Frost-YOLOv5 model can effectively detect emerging frost crystal targets and provide theoretical principles and technical support for agrometeorological monitoring research.

Wind machines for frost damage mitigation: A quantitative 3D investigation based on observations

Wind machines have been increasingly used for frost damage mitigation in the agricultural community. During radiative frost nights, wind machines are used to erode near-surface thermal inversion by air mixing. The underlying mixing processes remain poorly understood. A full picture of warming effects caused by air mixing requires measurements with wide coverage and high resolution. Our study aimed to quantify the magnitude and area of warming by air mixing and identify the characteristic mixing processes downwind and upwind. We installed 9 km of fiber optic cables in a 6.75 ha orchard block, creating two horizontal planes and three vertical profiles. Quasi-3D temperature responses with spatial sampling and temporal resolution of 25 cm and 10 s, respectively, were obtained before and during machine operation. We found a 50% reduction of the local inversion strength (8 K) over 0.42 ha at 1 m and 0.46 ha at 2 m height. The warming area for a 30% reduction extends to 2.81 and 2.52 ha, respectively. As the propeller rotates 360°, the weak background wind substantially impacts the air mixing processes downwind and upwind. When jets blow along with background wind, the warming plumes arrive earlier than the jet due to horizontal advection from earlier warmed sections. The warming plumes consequently accumulate downwind and penetrate deep into the canopy. In contrast, in upwind direction, wind drag resistance causes warming plumes arrive later than the jet. Quadrant analysis reveals that flux transport during the machine operation is dominated by sweeping and ejection motions. Intermittent downdrafts of warm air and updrafts of cool air result in efficient vertical heat exchange. This feature makes wind machines highly effective in raising canopy airspace temperature to mitigate frost damage.

Correction: Leske, B.A.; Biddulph, T.B. Estimating Effects of Radiation Frost on Wheat Using a Field-Based Frost Control Treatment to Stop Freezing Damage. Genes 2022, 13, 578

In the original publication [...].

РЕГУЛИРОВАНИЕ МИКРОКЛИМАТА ОСУШАЕМЫХ ТОРФЯНЫХ ПОЧВ СЕВЕРНОГО ЗАУРАЛЬЯ

The results of long-term (2008 - 2010) studies of the microclimate of drained peat soils in the subtaiga zone of the Northern Trans-Urals are presented. It is shown that drained peat soils, due to the specific thermal properties of peat, have an unsatisfactory temperature regime for the successful cultivation of many agricultural crops. Poor thermal conductivity of peat and strong heat transfer from surface layers are the main causes of frequent radiation frosts. The dark color of peat soils promotes a strong absorption of heat and their overheating on sunny days up to 45 - 50°C, in connection with which they are characterized by a large amplitude of daily temperature fluctuations (13.9 - 25.8°C). The introduction of clay into peat soil changes the thermal properties of peat, improves heat exchange between the surface and deeper layers of the soil; increases the temperature in the 0.2 - meter layer by 0.35 - 1.3°C on average during the growing season, reduces the amplitude of daily temperature fluctuations by 3.3 - 3.5°C, practically eliminates the possibility of radiation frosts. Improving the microclimate of peat soil by applying 300 t/ha of clay provides an increase of 7.24 t/ha (35.0%) in the yield of green mass of oats. An increase in the clay norm from 300 to 900 t/ha increases the yield of green mass of oats insignificantly (2.53 t/ha - 9%).

Estimating Effects of Radiation Frost on Wheat Using a Field-Based Frost Control Treatment to Stop Freezing Damage.

Crop phenotyping experiments have long struggled to have a reliable control treatment that excludes frost and associated freezing damage to plants. Previous attempts used a barrier, such as a removable shelter or cloth to exclude frost. However, these methods were labour intensive and varied in their effectiveness. An automated diesel heater was used to protect field plots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) from frost damage. In 2018 and 2019 there were 22 and 33 radiation frost events from July to October at the field site. The heater maintained canopy air temperature above freezing (>0 °C) for the duration of the frost (~6–8 h). Heated plots had 2–3 °C warmer minimum canopy air temperatures. Cold and chilling damage was still present in heated plots and represented 20–30% floret sterility; freezing damage in non-heated plots accounted for an additional 10–30% floret sterility. Grain mapping revealed: grain set in the apical spikelets is most affected by frost damage; proximal florets (G1 and G2) contribute the most to grain yield, but distal (G3 and G4) are important contributors to grain yield when sterility in proximal florets occurs. These results demonstrate that a plot heater is a useful tool to study frost-induced freezing damage in cereal crops, by way of preventing freezing damage in heated field plots for direct comparison to naturally frosted plots. This approach could be used to develop improved damage functions for crop simulation models through a dose and timing-response experiment for natural frost incidence on cereal crops in field plots.

Evaluation of Frost Damage and Pod Set in Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) under Field Conditions

Frost is one factor that causes extensive yield losses globally. A study was conducted to evaluate frost damage under field conditions and assess the genetic variation of flowers converting into pods. Diverse faba bean genotypes were evaluated under four growing seasons in a randomized complete block design: three at the University of Sydney, Narrabri, Australia (2014–2016) with three sowing dates, and one at the Agricultural Research Station, Dirab, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (2016/2017) in one sowing. Visual methods were used to estimate frost damage and record the development of pods. Radiation frost in 2014 (Narrabri) damaged lower pods, while advection frost in 2016/2017 (Dirab) damaged upper pods. The radiation frost formed immediately above the ground; therefore, flowers and pods of taller plants minimized the damage because of their long distance from the ground. The earliest (mid-April) and middle sowing (7 May) suffered more by frost, while a delay in sowing (last week in May) led to frost escape or minor damage. The genotypes IX474/4-3 and 11NF010a-2 showed low sensitivity to frost at the vegetative and reproductive stages. Flowers developed at the beginning of flowering had a faster and higher pod formation rate (41–43%) than those formed later and contributed more to yields. Therefore, a severe frost at the beginning of flowering can cause a significant yield loss as these flowers are the most productive. The frost-tolerant genotypes, and faster and higher pod forming rates, identified in this study can be exploited to breed better varieties in the future.

Wind machine rotor acoustic prediction method

Wind machines are commonly used in vineyards in New Zealand during a radiation frost to draw warm air from above a crop and blow it over the crop to prevent frost damage. The primary source of noise produced by the wind machine has been identified as being aero-acoustic noise from the rotor. This paper describes a theoretical method for predicting both the broadband and tonal rotor noise. An empirical model that accounts for the effects of different blade tip geometries is derived from an experimental investigation and is combined with previously developed empirical methods to predict the broadband noise of the rotors. Several purely theoretical models are developed and used to predict the tone noise which is produced by rotating steady loading and thickness sources on the rotor blades as well as the interaction of the blades with the flow disturbance caused by the tower. The model is validated against measurements. As the method can calculate the noise level produced by a wind machine rotor very quickly, it is well suited for use in an optimization method where many different rotor designs are evaluated.

Analysis of Extreme Meteorological Events in the Central Andes of Peru Using a Set of Specialized Instruments

A set of instruments to measure several physical, microphysical, and radiative properties of the atmosphere and clouds are essential to identify, understand and, subsequently, forecast and prevent the effects of extreme meteorological events, such as severe rainfall, hailstorms, frost events and high pollution events, that can occur with some regularity in the central Andes of Peru. However, like many other Latin American countries, Peru lacks an adequate network of meteorological stations to identify and analyze extreme meteorological events. To partially remedy this deficiency, the Geophysical Institute of Peru has installed a set of specialized sensors (LAMAR) on the Huancayo observatory (12.04° S, 75.32° W, 3350 m ASL), located in the Mantaro river basin, which is a part of the central Andes of Peru, especially in agricultural areas. LAMAR consists of a set of sensors that are used to measure the main atmosphere and soil variables located in a 30-meter-high tower. It also has a set of high-quality radiation sensors (BSRN station) that helps measure the components of short-wave (SW) (global, diffuse, direct and reflected) and long-wave (LW) (emitted and incident) irradiance mounted in a 6-meter-high tower. Moreover, to analyze the microphysics properties of clouds and rainfall, LAMAR includes a set of profiler radars: A Ka-band cloud profiler (MIRA-35c), a UHF wind profiler (CLAIRE), and a VHF wind profiler (BLTR), along with two disdrometers (PARSIVEL2) and two rain gauges pluviometers. The present study performs a detailed dynamic and energetic analysis of two extreme rainfall events, two intense frost events, and three high-pollution events occurring on the Huancayo observatory between 2018 and 2019. The results show that the rainfall events are similar to the 1965–2019 climatological 90th percentile of the daily accumulated rainfall. The results also highlighted the patterns of reflectivity in function of height for both events, which is measured by highlighting the presence of convective and stratiform rainfall types for both events. The first intense rainfall event was associated with strong easterly circulations at high levels of the atmosphere, and the second one was associated with the presence of strong westerly circulations and the absence of BH-NL system around the central Andes. The first frost event was mainly associated with continuous clear sky conditions in the few previous days, corresponding to a radiative frost event. The second one was mainly associated with the intrusion of cold surges from extra-tropical South America. For both events, the energy budget components were strong-lower in comparison to the mean monthly values during early morning hours. Finally, for the high pollution events, the study identified that the main source of aerosols were the forest fires that took place in Peru with certain contributions from the fires in the northern area of Bolivia.

CLASSIFICAÇÃO CLIMÁTICA APLICADA AO ESTADO DE GOIÁS E AO DISTRITO FEDERAL, BRASIL: CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION APPLIED TO THE STATE OF GOIÁS AND THE FEDERAL DISTRICT, BRAZIL

Considered the basis for aid in environmental and economic planning, the climate classification defines the climate in several regions of the Planet. This article suggests a new approach to mapping climatic units for the State of Goias and the Federal District, analyzing the average temperature of the coldest month (TMMMF), the number of dry months, the influence of atmospheric systems and their implications on the amount of rain, and in the passages of cold fronts with the possibility of frost formation. This climate classification system has a hierarchy, and can be divided into Domains, Subdomains, Types, Subtypes and Meso / Topoclimates. To determine the climatic units, data were collected from 108 rainfall collection points of the National Water Agency (ANA) and 17 stations from the National Meteorological Institute (INMET). The CHELSA air temperature algorithm was used to cover areas with no weather stations. Two climatic domains were identified in the study area: Tropical and Mild Tropical; these were subdivided into climatic subdomains (with number of dry months), climatic types (location in the Brazilian territory) and climatic subtypes (more precise location within geomorphological aspects). The definition of climatic units in the state of Goias and the Federal District generates new contributions to regional studies in Detail Climatology. This new climate classification system is further improved, due to the large number of historical data available on the internet, and can be used in environmental diagnostics, teaching materials and agricultural analyzes.

The influence of micro cracks appearing during concreting of road viaducts and their impact on a frost - thaw resistance

The influence of micro cracks appearing during concreting of road viaducts and their impact on a frost - thaw resistance

Research on surface frost heave and thaw settlement law and optimization of frozen wall thickness in shallow tunnel using freezing method

Research on surface frost heave and thaw settlement law and optimization of frozen wall thickness in shallow tunnel using freezing method

El Niño-Oscilação Sul e ocorrência de geadas na região de Guarapuava-PR

A associação das características das fases El Niño Oscilação Sul (ENOS) com as condições locais, são ferramentas importantes para serem empregadas na geração de informações inerentes aos riscos de geadas. Apesar do seu grande impacto na região Sul do Brasil e em outras partes do mundo, as geadas são eventos de difícil previsibilidade por serem resultado da interação de diferentes condições climáticas. Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar a ocorrência de geadas durante os anos de El Niño, La Niña e neutralidade na região de Guarapuava-PR. Foi utilizada uma base de dados históricos das variáveis climáticas de 43 anos (1976 a 2018) posteriormente cruzados com dados do ENOS obtidos da Nacional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Verificou-se que períodos de neutralidade climática são predominantes em relação as fases extremas do ENOS e apresenta maior frequência de eventos de geadas. Nesta condição a frequência de geadas é de 67% em relação 20% e 13% em La Niña e El Niño, respectivamente.

EVALUATION OF TOPICAL 30% POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE VERSUS 30% TRICHLOROACETIC ACID IN THE TREATMENT OF PLANE WARTS

Background: Warts are benign proliferation of skin and mucosa that result from infection with human papilloma virus (HPV) which are double stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) viruses that replicate inside the nucleus. Infection with HPV may be clinical, subclinical, or latent. Objective: To compare the efficacy and safety of potassium hydroxide 30% (KOH) versus trichloroacetic acid 30% (TCA) in treatment of plane warts. Patients and methods: Our study was carried out on 60 patients complaining of plane warts divided into A and B from November 2019 to March 2020, Group A: thirty patients treated by potassium hydroxide (KOH 30%) weekly and Group B: thirty patients treated by trichloroacetic acid (TCA 30%) weekly for maximum period of 12 weeks, with pointed end of a wooden applicator to the center of all the lesions until a white frost appeared. Patients were selected from out-patient clinic of Dermatology, Venereology and Andrology Department of Al-Azhar University Hospitals. Results: The present study showed complete cure rates of 7 patients (23.3%) in group A and 7 patients (23.3%) in group B. Partial cure rates occurred in 15 patients (50%) in group A and 16 patients (53,3%) in group B after 12 weeks of treatment. No response occurred in 8 patients (27.6%) in group A and 7 patients (23.3%) in group B. All nonresponsive patients had lesions in sites other than face except for 2 patients, one in each group had facial lesions. Conclusion: Based on our findings, both potassium hydroxide (KOH 30%) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA30%) are equally effective in treatment of plane warts without statistically significant difference at end of treatment period and follow up, but TCA (30%) was safer than KOH (30%).

Shelf Life Assessment of Moringa oleifera Fortified (Leaf Powder) Instant Soup Mixes

Background: Moringa oleifera Lam (Moringaceae) is a highly valued multipurpose herbal plant, native to India, grows in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is commonly known as ‘drumstick tree’ or ‘horseradish tree’. Moringa can withstand both severe drought and mild frost conditions and hence widely cultivated across the world. The leaves are rich in minerals, vitamins and other essential phytochemicals. Extracts from the leaves are used to treat malnutrition, augment breast milk in lactating mothers.Methods: During the investigation different combinations like 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% of Moringa leaves powdered and were used for formulations respectively. Prepared Moringa leaves powder were mix with other spices to prepare instant soup powder. The formulation content 24% Moringa leaf (MLP4) powder was the better composition and more acceptable among the rest.Result: Proximate study of selected sample were found high in protein 13.67%, ash 9.79%, fibre 5.99% and low in fat 3.04% and energy value which make the developed soup as an appropriate choice to fulfill nutritional demand of consumers. Instant soup mixes packed in aluminium foil was found to be successfully stored for 90 days at room temperature without any major changes, in physicochemical, microbial and organoleptic parameters. Supplementation with Moringa leaf powder significantly enhanced the nutritional characteristics and had a reasonable amount of required nutrients, Hence the value added instant soup mix can also play a great role in attaining the nutritional security in the country.

Narince Üzüm Çeşidinde Salisilik Asit Uygulamalarının Yüksek Sıcaklık Stresine Karşı Etkilerinin Belirlenmesi

Bitkiler bulundukları çevre içinde, gelişimlerini sınırlayan, farklı şekillerde meydana gelebilen olumsuz koşullara maruz kalabilmektedirler. Bitkilerde büyüme, gelişme ve metabolizmayı etkileyen ve/veya engelleyen bu olumsuz koşullara stres adı verilmektedir. Salisilik asit (SA) bitkilerde yaygın olarak bulunan ve artık günümüzde bitki büyüme ve gelişmesinin düzenlenmesinde önemli rol oynadığı kabul edilen bir fitohormondur. SA aynı zamanda, tuzluluk, yüksek ve düşük sıcaklık, su, ağır metal, don ve kuraklık stresi gibi abiyotik stres şartlarında bitkilerin toleransını artırmaktadır. Çalışmamız da Türkiye‘nin önemli beyaz şaraplık üzüm çeşitlerinden olan ve Tokat‘ta yaygın yetiştiriciliği yapılan Narince üzüm çeşidine ait fidanlar kullanılmıştır. Uygulanan yüksek sıcaklık stresi öncesi bitkilere 4 farklı dozda ( 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 µmol l-1 ) salisilik asit (SA) uygulanmış olup bitki büyütme kabininde 40ËšC‘de 12 saat boyunca yüksek sıcaklığa maruz bırakılmıştır. Stres uygulamasından 21 gün sonra ise bitkilerden bitki büyümesini takip etmek amacıyla, sürgün uzunluğu (cm), yaş- kuru sürgün ve kök ağırlıkları (g) alınmış, Salisilik asidin etkisini ortaya koymak amacıyla ise oransal su kapsamı (%), iyon akışı (%) ve hücre zarı zararlanma oranı (%) hesaplanmıştır.