Fricke Gel Research Articles

Characterization of ferric ions diffusion in Fricke gel dosimeters by using inverse problem techniques

Diffusion of ferric ions in ferrous sulfate (Fricke) gels represents one of the main drawbacks of some radiation detectors, such as Fricke gel dosimeters. In practice, this disadvantage can be overcome by prompt dosimeter analysis, and constraining strongly the time between irradiation and analysis, implementing special dedicated protocols aimed at minimizing signal blurring due to diffusion effects. This work presents a novel analytic modeling and numerical calculation approach of diffusion coefficients in Fricke gel radiation sensitive materials. Samples are optically analyzed by means of visible light transmission measurements by capturing images with a charge-coupled device camera provided with a monochromatic filter corresponding to the XO-infused Fricke solution absorbance peak. Dose distributions in Fricke gels are suitably delivered by assessing specific initial conditions further studied by periodical sample image acquisitions. Diffusion coefficient calculations were performed using a set of computational algorithms based on inverse problem formulation. Although 1D approaches to the diffusion equation might provide estimations of the diffusion coefficient, it should be calculated in the 2D framework due to the intrinsic bi-dimensional characteristics of Fricke gel layers here considered as radiation dosimeters. Thus a suitable 2D diffusion model capable of determining diffusion coefficients was developed by fitting the obtained algorithm numerical solutions with the corresponding experimental data. Comparisons were performed by introducing an appropriate functional in order to analyze both experimental and numerical values. Solutions to the second-order diffusion equation are calculated in the framework of a dedicated method that incorporates finite element method. Moreover, optimized solutions can be attained by gradient-type minimization algorithms. Knowledge about diffusion coefficient for a Fricke gel radiation detector is helpful in accounting for effects regarding elapsed time between dosimeter irradiation and further analysis. Hence, corrections might be included in standard dependence of optical density differences and actual, non-diffused, absorbed dose distributions. The obtained values for ferric ion diffusion coefficient are around 0.65 mm2 h−1, being in good agreement with previous works corresponding to similar Fricke gel dosimeter compositions. Therefore, more accurate 2D and 3D dose mapping might be attained, thus constituting valuable improvements in Fricke gel dosimetry, and parallely a high precision method of diffusion modeling and calculation has been developed.

Correlation between ferrous ammonium sulfate concentration, sensitivity and stability of Fricke gel dosimeters exposed to clinical X-ray beams

This work describes the characterization of various Fricke-Agarose-Xylenol gels (FXG) dosimeters using NMR relaxometry and MRI analysis. Using X-rays from a clinical linear accelerator (LINAC), the gels were irradiated in the dose range from 0Gy to 20Gy. The photon sensitivity of the FXGs was measured in terms of NMR relaxation rates; its dependence on radiation dose was determined as a function of ferrous ammonium sulfate contents (from 0.5mM to 5mM). Furthermore, the stability of the NMR signal was monitored over several days after irradiation. These measurements were aided by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans which allowed three-dimensional (3D) dose mapping. In order to maximize the MRI response, a systematic study was performed to optimize acquisition sequences and parameters. In particular, we analyzed the dependence of MRI signal on the repetition time (TR) and on the inversion time (TI) using inversion recovery sequences. The results are reported and discussed from the point of view of the dosimeter use in clinical radiotherapy. This work highlights that the optimization of additive content inside gel matrix is fundamental for optimizing photon sensitivity of these detectors.

NMR relaxometry measurements of Fricke gel dosimeters exposed to neutrons

Fricke infused gel matrices offer several features making them suitable for dosimetric applications; among these there are tissue equivalence, low cost and ease of preparation. Their nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation properties can be used as a radiation detector for the dosimetry of beams used in cancer therapy. In recent years neutron capture therapy has been resumed for the treatment of various types of cancer and it requires three-dimensional mapping of the neutron fields. In this work, we investigated this particular application through NMR relaxometry and MR imaging of Fricke gels exposed to neutrons. We analyzed both the R1 and R2 relaxation rates, which relate to the longitudinal T1 and transversal T2 relaxation times. In particular, we found that the relaxation rate R2 does not depend on the neutron fluence, whereas the relaxation rate R1 increases linearly with the fluence. The magnetic resonance imaging acquisitions showed that T1-weighted images allow the characterization of samples exposed to different neutron fluences.

TU‐C‐BRE‐04: 3D Gel Dosimetry Using ViewRay On‐Board MR Scanner: A Feasibility Study

Purpose:MR based 3D gel has been proposed for radiation therapy dosimetry. However, access to MR scanner has been one of the limiting factors for its wide acceptance. Recent commercialization of an on‐board MR‐IGRT device (ViewRay) may render the availability issue less of a concern. This work reports our attempts to simulate MR based dose measurement accuracy on ViewRay using three different gels.Methods:A spherical BANG gel dosimeter was purchased from MGS Research. Cylindrical MAGIC gel and Fricke gel were fabricated in‐house according to published recipes. After irradiation, BANG and MAGIC were imaged using a dual‐echo spin echo sequence for T2 measurement on a Philips 1.5T MR scanner, while Fricke gel was imaged using multiple spin echo sequences. Difference between MR measured and TPS calculated dose was defined as noise. The noise power spectrum was calculated and then simulated for the 0.35 T magnetic field associated with ViewRay. The estimated noise was then added to TG‐119 test cases to simulate measured dose distributions. Simulated measurements were evaluated against TPS calculated doses using gamma analysis.Results:Given same gel, sequence and coil setup, with a FOV of 180×90×90 mm3, resolution of 3×3×3 mm3, and scanning time of 30 minutes, the simulated measured dose distribution using BANG would have a gamma passing rate greater than 90% (3%/3mm and absolute). With a FOV 180×90×90 mm3, resolution of 4×4×5 mm3, and scanning time of 45 minutes, the simulated measuremened dose distribution would have a gamma passing rate greater than 97%. MAGIC exhibited similar performance while Fricke gel was inferior due to much higher noise.Conclusions:The simulation results demonstrated that it may be feasible to use MAGIC and BANG gels for 3D dose verification using ViewRay low‐field on‐board MRI scanner.

Effective atomic numbers and electron densities of some human tissues and dosimetric materials for mean energies of various radiation sources relevant to radiotherapy and medical applications

Effective atomic numbers, Zeff, and electron densities, neff, are convenient parameters used to characterise the radiation response of a multi-element material in many technical and medical applications. Accurate values of these physical parameters provide essential data in medical physics. In the present study, the effective atomic numbers and electron densities have been calculated for some human tissues and dosimetric materials such as Adipose Tissue (ICRU-44), Bone Cortical (ICRU-44), Brain Grey/White Matter (ICRU-44), Breast Tissue (ICRU-44), Lung Tissue (ICRU-44), Soft Tissue (ICRU-44), LiF TLD-100H, TLD-100, Water, Borosilicate Glass, PAG (Gel Dosimeter), Fricke (Gel Dosimeter) and OSL (Aluminium Oxide) using mean photon energies, Em, of various radiation sources. The used radiation sources are Pd-103, Tc-99, Ra-226, I-131, Ir-192, Co-60, 30kVp, 40kVp, 50kVp (Intrabeam, Carl Zeiss Meditec) and 6MV (Mohan-6MV) sources. The Em values were then used to calculate Zeff and neff of the tissues and dosimetric materials for various radiation sources. Different calculation methods for Zeff such as the direct method, the interpolation method and Auto-Zeff computer program were used and agreements and disagreements between the used methods have been presented and discussed. It has been observed that at higher Em values agreement is quite satisfactory (Dif.<5%) between the adopted methods.

Measuring output factors and beam profiles formed by multileaf collimators using Fricke gel dosimeter

The accuracy and precision are necessary factors in radiotherapy, especially for measurements involving output factors and beam profiles; in this case multileaf collimators (MLCs) and dosimeter systems are not employed to obtain an adequate absorbed dose. In this work, output factors and beam profiles using multileaf collimators were obtained through the Fricke Xylenol Gel (FXG) dosimeter irradiated with 6 MV photon beams. From the results, FXG dosimetry demonstrated to be an adequate dosimetric tool for radiotherapy applications using MLC.

A diffusion-free and linear-energy-transfer-independent nanocomposite Fricke gel dosimeter

We report a new magnetic-resonance-imaging (MRI) based nanocomposite Fricke gel (NC-FG) dosimeter system, which is free from two main drawbacks of conventional Fricke gel dosimeters, namely, the diffusion of the radiation products and the linear-energy-transfer (LET) dependence of the radiation sensitivity when used for ion beams. The NC-FG dosimeter was prepared by incorporating 1% (w/w) clay nanoparticles into deaerated Fricke gel. We have dosimetrically characterized the NC-FG by using MRI measurements after irradiation with a monoenergetic 290MeV/nucleon carbon beam. No diffusion of the radiation products was observed during nine days after the irradiation. Moreover, its response faithfully reproduced the depth-dose distribution measured by an ionization chamber, which indicates the absence of the LET dependence. Also, the NC-FG dosimeter exhibited a good linearity up to 800Gy.

The effect of mixed dopants on the stability of Fricke gel dosimeters

Auto-oxidation and fast diffusion in Fricke gels are major drawbacks to wide-spread application of these gels in 3D dosimetry. Aiming to limit both processes, we used mixed dopants: the ferric-specific ligand xylenol orange with a ferrous-specific ligand (1,10-phenanthroline) and/or a bi-functional cross-linking agent (glyoxal). Markedly improved auto-oxidation stability was observed in the xylenol orange and phenanthroline doped gel at the expense of increased background absorbance and faster diffusion. Addition of glyoxal limited the diffusion rate and led to a partial bleaching of the gel. It is conceivable that these two new compositions may find useful practical application.

Fundamentals of gel dosimeters

Fundamental chemical and physical phenomena that occur in Fricke gel dosimeters, polymer gel dosimeters, micelle gel dosimeters and genipin gel dosimeters are discussed. Fricke gel dosimeters are effective even though their radiation sensitivity depends on oxygen concentration. Oxygen contamination can cause severe problems in polymer gel dosimeters, even when THPC is used. Oxygen leakage must be prevented between manufacturing and irradiation of polymer gels, and internal calibration methods should be used so that contamination problems can be detected. Micelle gel dosimeters are promising due to their favourable diffusion properties. The introduction of micelles to gel dosimetry may open up new areas of dosimetry research wherein a range of water-insoluble radiochromic materials can be explored as reporter molecules.

Isotropic three‐dimensional MRI‐Fricke‐infused gel dosimetry

Fricke-infused gel has been shown to be a simple and attainable method for the conformal measurement of absorbed radiation dose. Nevertheless, its accuracy is seriously hindered by the irreversible ferric ion diffusion during magnetic resonance imaging, particularly when three-dimensional (3D) dose measurement in radiosurgery is considered. In this study, the authors developed a fast three-dimensional spin-echo based Fricke gel dosimetry technique to reduce the adverse effects of ferric ion diffusion and to obtain an accurate isotropic 3D dose measurement. A skull shaped phantom containing Fricke-infused gel was irradiated using Leksell Gamma Knife. The rapid image-based dosimetry technique was applied with the use of a 3D fast spin-echo magnetic resonance imaging sequence. The authors mathematically derived and experimentally validated the correlations between dose-response characteristics and parameters of the 3D fast spin-echo MR imaging sequence. Absorbed dose profiles were assessed and compared to the calculated profiles given by the Gamma Knife treatment planning system. Coefficient of variance (CV%) and coefficient of determination (R(2)) were used to evaluate the precision of dose-response curve estimation. The agreement between the measured and the planned 3D dose distributions was quantified by gamma-index analysis of two acceptance criteria. Proper magnetic resonance imaging parameters were explored to render an accurate three-dimensional absorbed dose mapping with a 1 mm(3) isotropic image resolution. The efficacy of the dose-response estimation was approved by an R(2) > 0.99 and an average CV% of 1.6%. Average gamma pass-rate between the experimentally measured and GammaPlan calculated dose distributions were 83.8% and 99.7% for 2%/2 and 3%/3 mm criteria, respectively. With the designed MR imaging sequence and parameters, total 3D MR acquisition time was confined to within 20 min postirradiation, during which time ferric ion diffusion effects were negligible, thus enabling an accurate 3D radiation dose measurement.

Evaluation of the potential for diacetylenes as reporter molecules in 3D micelle gel dosimetry

Radiochromic micelle gel dosimeters are promising for three-dimensional (3D) radiation dosimetry because they can be read out by optical CT techniques and they have superior spatial stability compared to polymer and Fricke gel dosimeters. This study evaluates the use of diacetylenes as reporter molecules in micelle gel dosimeters. Several gels containing pentacosa-10,12-diynoic acid (PCDA) emulsified using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) changed from colourless to blue upon irradiation. Unfortunately, all phantoms that experienced a colour change were turbid and would be unsuitable for 3D dosimetry. Two techniques (use of organic solvent and aqueous-phase additives) were successful in increasing colloidal stability to prevent the turbidity problem, but none of the resulting transparent gels changed colour in response to radiation. Transparent PCDA emulsions were prepared using NaOH solutions with no SDS or other emulsifier, but these transparent emulsions also did not change colour. Only turbid gels and emulsions with precipitated particles responded to radiation. These results indicate that the colour change was due to the oligomerization within precipitated PCDA crystals, and that liquid-phase emulsified PCDA did not undergo oligomerization. As a result, PCDA is not suitable for use in micelle gel dosimeters, and other radiochromic reporter molecules will need to be identified.

Fricke gel dosimetric catheters in high dose rate brachytherapy. In phantom dose distribution measurements of a 5 catheter implant

Due to the complexity and the many steps involved in a high dose rate brachytherapy process, radiation dose delivered to the patient during the treatment is susceptible to many inaccuracies and may not accurately match the planned dose. In vivo dosimetry is a reliable solution to compare planned and delivered dose distributions, representing therefore a valid tool to systematically perform a quality control of the radiotherapic process and eventually increment treatment accuracy. In this study, Fricke gel dosimetric catheters (FGDC) were investigated to perform dose distribution measurements of a brachytherapy implant. The brachytherapy implant was established in a water phantom with five flexible plastic needles and irradiation was performed with a high dose rate remote afterloading device provided with an Ir-192 radioactive source. Comparison between dose distributions measured with ten FGDC located in the proximity of the implant needles and calculated by the treatment planning system shows very good agreement for seven out of ten dosimeters, whereas the remaining three show a local underestimation of the dose. In phantom results indicate that Fricke gel dosimetric catheters might be valid candidates for performing in vivo dosimetry in high dose rate brachytherapy. However, further measurements are still required to validate this dosimetric method.

Study of Fricke gel dosimeter response for different gel quality

The Fricke xylenol gel (FXG) dosimeter has been studied for application in radiotherapy because it is capable of to measure the spatial distribution of radiation doses. The dosimetry is based on the oxidation of ferrous (Fe2+) to ferric (Fe3+) ions radiation induced, related to the radiation dose. The gel material usually employed is the 300 Bloom gelatin, which is imported and very expensive in Brazil. Aiming to analyze the viability of to use a locally produced and low cost gel material, in this work the spectrophotometric responses of FXG solutions prepared using 270 Bloom gelatin commercially available and 300 Bloom gelatin imported were compared. The absorption spectra of solutions prepared with 5% by weight 270 and 300 Bloom gelatins non-irradiated and irradiated with 60Co gamma radiation in the dose range between 0.5 and 100 Gy were analysed, the dose-response curves were evaluated and the useful dose range was established. The obtained results indicate that the FXG solution prepared with 270 Bloom gelatin presents good performance, similar to that presented by the FXG solution prepared with 300 Bloom gelatin and its use can be recommended owing to the low cost and the availability in local market.

3D dosimetry fundamentals: gels and plastics

Many different materials have been developed for 3D radiation dosimetry since the Fricke gel dosimeter was first proposed in 1984. This paper is intended as an entry point into these materials where we provide an overview of the basic principles for the most explored materials. References to appropriate sources are provided such that the reader interested in more details can quickly find relevant information.

Dosimetry in HDR brachytherapy with Fricke-gel layers and Fricke-gel catheters

Fricke-gel layer dosimeters (FGLD) and Fricke gel dosimetric catheters (FGDC) have been designed and tested with the aim of enquiring their suitability for HDR 192Ir brachytherapy source control and for in-vivo dose verification during treatment. Anisotropy function measurements have been carried out with FGLDs in which a thin plastic tube has been placed in for the 192Ir source insertion. FGDCs are constituted by plastic tubes (3 mm of external diameter and 13 cm of length) filled with the dosimeter-gel. Absorbed dose images and profiles were attained by means of optical analysis. Dedicated software has been developed both for achieving anisotropy function values and for obtaining reliable results in visible light absorbance measurements across the thin cylindrical dosimeters. Preparation and analysis procedures have been optimised. The results confirm that the proposed methods are very promising for HDR brachytherapy dosimetry.

Characterisation of a Fricke gel compound adopted to produce dosimetric catheters for in vivo dose measurements in HDR brachytherapy

Abstract Radiation doses delivered to the patient during high dose rate brachytherapy treatments are susceptible to many inaccuracies and may not accurately match the planned doses. Novel Fricke gel dosimetric catheters (FGDC) were developed in the laboratory to be used for in vivo measurements of high dose rate brachytherapy treatments and represent possible tools to increase treatment accuracy. In this study, the dosimetric compound adopted to achieve FGDC was studied in terms of dose sensitivity and linearity, and some potentialities and limits of its application were investigated. Results show that at doses higher than 400 cGy, the dosimeter response is linear with the delivered dose until a saturation effect is observed at doses higher than 2800 cGy. However, saturation is reached at lower doses as well with dose rates higher than 400 cGy/min.

Fast-neutron dose evaluation in BNCT with Fricke gel layer detectors

Abstract Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is a cancer radiotherapy that uses epithermal and thermal neutron beams. The determination of the absorbed dose in healthy tissue, separating the various dose contributions having different radiobiological effectiveness (RBE) is of great importance for therapy planning. However, a standard code of practice has not yet been established because suitable methods for dosimetry in BNCT are still in progress. A study about the characterization of the epithermal column of the LVR-15 research reactor in Řež (CZ) has been performed, in particular concerning the fast-neutron dose. This dose is not negligible and its determination is important owing to its high RBE. Fast-neutron and photon dose distributions in a water phantom have been measured by means of Fricke gel layer dosimeters. Even if gel layer dosimetry is not yet standardized, it is presently the only method for obtaining images of each dose contribution in BNCT neutron fields. The results were compared with values measured with thermoluminescence detectors, twin ionization chambers data taken from literature and Monte Carlo simulations.

Determination of Very Slow Diffusion of Paramagnetic Ions by NMR Spectroscopy

In this paper, we propose a new method of measuring the very slow paramagnetic ion diffusion coefficient using a commercial high-resolution spectrometer. If there are distinct paramagnetic ions influencing the hydrogen nuclear magnetic relaxation time differently, their diffusion coefficients can be measured separately. A cylindrical phantom filled with Fricke xylenol gel solution and irradiated with gamma rays was used to validate the method. The Fricke xylenol gel solution was prepared with 270 Bloom porcine gelatin, the phantom was irradiated with gamma rays originated from a 60Co source and a high-resolution 200 MHz nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometer was used to obtain the phantom 1H profile in the presence of a linear magnetic field gradient. By observing the temporal evolution of the phantom NMR profile, an apparent ferric ion diffusion coefficient of 0.50 μm2/ms due to ferric ions diffusion was obtained. In any medical process where the ionizing radiation is used, the dose planning and the dose delivery are the key elements for the patient safety and success of treatment. These points become even more important in modern conformal radio therapy techniques, such as stereotactic radiosurgery, where the delivered dose in a single session of treatment can be an order of magnitude higher than the regular doses of radiotherapy. Several methods have been proposed to obtain the three-dimensional (3-D) dose distribution. Recently, we proposed an alternative method for the 3-D radiation dose mapping, where the ionizing radiation modifies the local relative concentration of Fe2+/Fe3+ in a phantom containing Fricke gel and this variation is associated to the MR image intensity. The smearing of the intensity gradient is proportional to the diffusion coefficient of the Fe3+ and Fe2+ in the phantom. There are several methods for measurement of the ionic diffusion using NMR, however, they are applicable when the diffusion is not very slow.

Gamma/neutron dose evaluation using Fricke gel and alanine gel dosimeters to be applied in boron neutron capture therapy

Gel dosimetry has been studied mainly for medical applications. The radiation induced ferric ions concentration can be measured by different techniques to be related with the absorbed dose. Aiming to assess gamma/thermal neutrons dose from research reactors, Fricke gel and alanine gel solutions produced at IPEN using 300 bloom gelatin were mixed with Na(2)B(4)O(7) salt, and the mixtures were irradiated at the beam hole #3 of the IEA-R1 research reactor, (BH#3) adapted to BNCT studies, and the dose-response was evaluated using spectrophotometry technique.

Energy dependent response of the Fricke gel dosimeter prepared with 270 Bloom gelatine for photons in the energy range 13.93 keV–6 MeV

The spectrophotometric energy dependent response to photons with effective energies between 13.93 keV and 6 MeV of the Fricke xylenol gel (FXG) dosimeter developed at IPEN, prepared using 270 Bloom gelatine, was evaluated in order to verify the possible dosimeter application in other medicine areas in addition to radiosurgery, for example, breast radiotherapy and blood bags radiosterilization. Other dosimetric characteristics were also evaluated. The obtained results indicate that the FXG dosimeter can contribute to dosimetry in different medical application areas including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evaluation technique that permits three-dimensional (3D) dose distribution evaluation.