Freshwater Springs Research Articles

Two new myxozoan parasites, Myxobolus mayarum n. sp. and Kudoa mayarum n. sp., infecting the neotropical fish Mayan Cichlid, Mayaheros urophthalmus (Günther, 1862) in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico.

The biodiversity of freshwater fishes is extensive in Mexico; however, knowledge of their associated myxozoan parasites is limited. This study aimed to recognize myxozoan parasites in the endemic fish Mayaheros urophthalmus. Two new species, Myxobolusmayarum n. sp. and Kudoamayarum n. sp. were described from M. urophthalmus collected in the Celestún Coastal Lagoon and Baldiosera Freshwater Spring from the Yucatán Peninsula. Myxobolusmayarum n. sp. was found in 100% of the examined fish, infecting the gills, kidney, pectoral fins, and spleen. The spores were round, 11.34 ± 0.67 μm length, 10.03 ± 0.44 μm width, and 7.22 ± 0.45 μm thickness. The polar capsules were pyriform and equal in size, 3.85 ± 0.29 μm length and 2.27 ± 0.20 μm width. The polar tubule 30.71 ± 2.10 μm long and coiled 5-6 times. Kudoamayarum n. sp. was found in 30% of fish, infecting the heart, oesophagus, and stomach. The spores were subspherical, 5.40 ± 0.40 μm length and 5.76 ± 0.37 μm width. The polar capsules were ellipsoidal and equal in size, 1.90 ± 0.27 μm length and 1.46 ± 0.20 μm width. The phylogenetic analyses based on the small and large subunits ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA and 28S rDNA) sequences demonstrated that these two species are distinct from other published myxozoans, providing evidence to support the description of two new species. This study constitutes the first record of myxozoans from the Yucatán Peninsula, contributing to increase the knowledge about the biodiversity of myxozoans in neotropical regions.

Wet–dry cycles cause nucleic acid monomers to polymerize into long chains

The key first step in the oligomerization of monomers is to find an initiator, which is usually done by thermolysis or photolysis. We present a markedly different approach that initiates acid-catalyzed polymerization at the surface of water films or water droplets, which is the reactive phase during a wet-dry cycle in freshwater hot springs associated with subaerial volcanic landmasses. We apply this method to the oligomerization of different nucleic acids, a topic relevant to how it might be possible to go from simple nucleic acid monomers to long-chain polymers, a key step in forming the building blocks of life. It has long been known that dehydration at elevated temperatures can drive the synthesis of ester and peptide bonds, but this reaction has typically been carried out by incubating dry monomers at elevated temperatures. We report that single or multiple cycles of wetting and drying link mononucleotides by forming phosphodiester bonds. Mass spectrometric analysis reveals uridine monophosphate oligomers up to 53 nucleotides, with an abundance of 35 and 43 nt in length. Long-chain oligomers are also observed for thymidine monophosphate, adenosine monophosphate, and deoxyadenosine monophosphate after exposure to a few wet-dry cycles. Nanopore sequencing confirms that long linear chains are formed. Enzyme digestion shows that the linkage is the phosphodiester bond, which is further confirmed by 31P NMR and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. This suggests that nucleic acid oligomers were likely to be present on early Earth in a steady state of synthesis and hydrolysis.

DAYA TARIK OBJEK WISATA AIR PUTRI WAIYOHO DI DESA KAWA KABUPATEN SERAM BAGIAN BARAT

The purpose of this study is to examine the appeal of the Air Putri Waiyoho tourist attraction and visitors' perceptions of Air Putri Waiyoho in Kawa Village, West Seram Regency. This research uses a survey method to assess the viability of the tourist attraction's potential, based on criteria from the Guidelines for Operational Area Analysis of Nature Tourism Attractions (ADO-ODTWA) by the Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHKA) in 2003, and qualitative descriptive analysis to understand visitor perceptions, with a sample of 77 visitor respondents interviewed.The main attraction at Air Putri Waiyoho is the fresh water spring in a bathing pool with clear, bright water surrounded by lush trees, enhancing the appeal for tourism activities. Based on the Tourism Feasibility Index analysis, the attraction criteria score 80.95%, accessibility criteria score 72.2%, and visitor facilities and infrastructure criteria score 66.6%. Thus, the feasibility analysis places Air Putri Waiyoho as a high-category tourist attraction. Visitor perceptions indicate a 100% attraction appeal, available facilities at 90.91%, and accessibility with 48% noting ease of transportation and reachability.

Chapter 3. Release of Geothermal Energy: Hot Springs and Tufa-Travertines

Heat and groundwater flow through a rift basin are an integral part of its geodynamics, but predicting what is happening below the surface is often difficult due to a lack of direct information. Field observations on the occurrence, subaerial distribution, temperature and geochemistry of freshwater springs may help to form an idea of groundwater flow through the basin and what it is, or has been, flowing through. Hot springs in the Albertine Rift are common and their occurrence is directly linked to deep-seated main rift bounding faults, or major intra-basinal fault intersections. The majority of Lake Edward and Lake Albert active, or paleo-springs, are also associated with precipitation of localised tufa-travertine limestones. The cooler tufas may contain calcitised plant roots, leaf imprints and freshwater gastropods. Active scavenging of uranium can be demonstrated in the algae and cyanobacteria that inhabit active spring mouths and corresponding tufa-travertines are depleted in radioactive K, U and Th elements. The source for concentrated HCO3- in groundwater at depth, needed to precipitate limestones at the surface, remains problematic. However, REE+Y geochemistry of the tufa-travertines suggest end-member sources of either carbonatites or marine limestones, indicating the possibility of a pre-Neogene rift sequence beneath the Albertine Rift.

Identifying the origin, recharge, and salinity sources of the Romqan saline spring, causing intense salinization of the Shirinrud River in southern Iran

Salinization of originally freshwater rivers by saline springs is a growing threat to availability of water resources in the semiarid region of southern Iran. The problem is further complicated by persistent drought of recent years, which has resulted in prolonged periods of reduced streamflow. This issue has prompted research on possibility of finding practical techniques for flow stoppage of saline springs by investigating their recharge and salinization mechanisms as well as emergence time. To this end, the Shirinrud river in southern Iran is selected as a case study. While this river contains freshwater flow, it is intensively salinized due to annual discharge of ∼110000 tons salt from the Romqan saline spring. Study area streamflow gauges, water sampling, plus field observations and measurements have been used to provide the required data and information. Data analyses included evaluation of temperature variations of study area groundwaters, long-term salinity of the Shirinrud River, and isotopic and hydrochemical compositions of water samples. Results of thermal, isotopic, and hydrochemical tracing methods together with hydrogeological evidences in the Romqan spring site indicated that although the Romqan saline spring is recharging from a fresh groundwater flow, it becomes intensely salinized due to passage of ∼1.7 km of its recharging water pass inside the Romqan salt diapir. Furthermore, sudden drying of a freshwater spring at border of Romqan salt diapir just after the 1999 earthquake in spring site area, resulted in redirection of the fresh groundwater flow of the dried spring into the Romqan salt diapir, followed by emergence of the Romqan saline spring in the Shirinrud River bed. For flow stoppage of the Romqan saline spring, an interceptor drainage system is suggested, which would divert the spring fresh recharging groundwater flow at border of Romqan salt diapir and finally desalinize the Shirinrud River from Romqan saline spring.

Biofilms in modern CaCO3-supersaturated freshwater environments reveal viral proxies

Biofilms are mucilaginous-organic layers produced by microbial activity including viruses. Growing biofilms form microbial mats which enhance sediment stability by binding particles with extracellular polymeric substances and promoting growth through nutrient cycling and organic matter accumulation. They preferentially develop at the sediment-water interface of both marine and non-marine environments, and upon the growing surfaces of modern tufa and travertine. In this context, however, little is known about the factors, environmental or anthropogenic, which affect viral communities in freshwater spring settings. To explore this issue, geochemical and metagenomic data were subjected to multidimensional analyses (Principal Component Analysis, Classical Multidimensional Scaling, Partial Least Squares analysis and cluster analysis based on beta-diversity), and these show that viral composition is specific and dependent on environment. Indeed, waters precipitating tufa and travertine do vary in their geochemistry with their viruses showing distinct variability between sites. These differences between virus groups allow the formulation of a viral proxy, based on the Caudoviricetes/Megaviricetes ratio established on the most abundant groups of viruses. This ratio may be potentially used in analysing ancient DNA preserved in carbonate formations as an additional source of information on the microbiological community during sedimentation.

Application of otolith morphometrics in delineating population structure of Aphaniops stoliczkanus (Teleostei: Aphaniidae) in southern Iranian waters

AbstractWidely distributed Species in different geological and ecological environments often exhibit great intraspecific diversity. Aphaniops stoliczkanus (Day, 1872) is an endemic species of Middle East occurring over a vast geographic range in different basins. This species has been observed in freshwater, brackish water and hot sulphur springs; therefore, its populations are known to exhibit considerable morphological variation. In the present study, we have investigated the poorly studied populations of A. stoliczkanus of the Hormuz and Makran basins of Iran in terms of otolith morphology and morphometrics. According to the results, these populations can be divided into two distinct groups including east and west of the Strait of Hormuz. Our results also provide evidence that there is a relationship between otolith morphology and the environment, serving as environmental factors that may influence the formation of specific regions in the otolith shape. Despite the remarkable morphological similarities among otoliths in geographically close populations of Charak and Chiruyeh, our data purposed that geographically these populations have different dorsal tip shapes in their otolith. In comparison to the data from other studies, the otoliths of Qeshm Island appear to resemble the overall shape of otolith found in Oman very closely. However, it is believed that Qeshm Island population was separated from the Hormuz basin populations during the Holocene Sea level rise. Also, the outcomes of this study provide insights into the potential role of environmental factors in shaping intraspecific diversity and the migration patterns of this species within the Persian Gulf.

Spring Water Quality in a Flood-Prone Area of Kampala City, Uganda: Insights Furnished by Sanitary and Limnochemical Data

For millennia, springs have provided water for drinking, domestic use, balneological treatment, liminality rites as well as tourist attractions. Amidst these uses, anthropogenic activities, especially urbanization and agriculture, continue to impair the functionality of springs. With the looming decadal climate change, freshwater springs could be a sustainable source of clean water for the realisation of Sustainable Development Goal 6. This paper presents the results of the sanitary inspection and assessment of limnochemical characteristics and quality of water samples (n = 64) from four freshwater springs (coded SPR1, SPR2, SPR3, and SPR4) in Kansanga, a flash flood-prone area in the African Great Lakes region of Uganda. Each sample was analysed for 17 parameters (temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, fluorides, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates, orthophosphates, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity, potassium, sodium, total, magnesium and calcium hardness) following the standard methods. Water quality index (WQI) was calculated to establish the quality of the water samples based on the physicochemical parameters measured. Based on the sanitary risk assessment results, the springs had medium- to high-risk scores, but most water parameters were within the WHO guidelines for potable water, except for nitrates (in SPR1 and SPR2), hardness levels (in SPR2), and dissolved oxygen (in all the samples). Sampling season and location had significant effects on the limnochemistry of the freshwater springs (p < 0.05). The water quality indices calculated indicated that the water from the springs was of good quality (WQI = 50–57), but there was a reduction in water quality during the wet season. The best water quality was recorded in samples from SPR4, followed by those for SPR3, SPR1, and SPR2. These results provide insights into the contribution of floods and poor sanitation facilities to the deterioration of spring water quality in Kansanga, and the need to leverage additional conservation strategies to support vulnerable communities in the area. Further studies are required to establish the risk posed by trace metals and microbes that may contaminate freshwater in the studied springs, especially following flood events.

Have per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) infiltrated Florida's freshwater springs?

The state of Florida contains over 1000 freshwater springs, fed by groundwater that provides 90 % of the drinking water for inhabitants. Freshwater springs are regarded as some of the cleanest water sources left on Earth, but recent studies regarding the extreme pervasiveness of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) across the globe have called into question whether PFAS have infiltrated these vital water sources. In this study, 90 water samples (43 vents/40 runs/plus 7 additional surface samples) from 50 freshwater Florida springs were analyzed for the presence of 29 PFAS via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. PFAS were detected in 63 % of the vent samples and 68 % of the run samples, with a total of 13 different quantifiable PFAS (>LOQ) present in at least one sample. Concentrations across samples ranged from 0.205 to 64.6 ng/L, with the most detected PFAS being perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). This data highlights the presence of PFAS in Florida springs, representing a potential health concern for spring water users and drinking water consumers, and suggests the need for further research regarding the possible contamination pathways of Florida's freshwater springs.

Collaborative anthracology and cultural understandings of wood charcoal in Marra Country (northern Australia)

This paper presents results from the first collaborative anthracological (archaeological wood charcoal analysis) study in northern Australia’s southwest Gulf of Carpentaria region. The analysis focused on charcoal from a Late Holocene combustion feature and surrounding dispersed charcoal on a buried floor surface. The results suggest that the combustion feature likely functioned as a ground oven associated with a potential specific function, with the majority of fuel wood coming from wakuwaku/marnunggurrun (Callitris columellaris or White Cypress Pine) and Myrtaceae species. These species are found in low woodlands associated with hilly and freshwater springs settings, and their abundance and dispersal are influenced by fire regimes (e.g., Aboriginal fire regimes). Information provided by members of the Marra Aboriginal community about our findings focused on the social and cultural significance of wakuwaku/marnunggurrun, with particular emphasis around its role in past and present wood collection strategies (fire-making and transport, high value timber etc.). By exploring how anthracology and cultural knowledge intersect to generate new understandings about the relational qualities of wood (charcoal), we aim to highlight how collaborative archaeobotany can help reorient research questions in the discipline, providing an opportunity to make such specialised analyses meaningful to communities.

Evaluation of freshwater springs utilizing benthic macroinvertebrates as key bioindicators in the Panchadewal Binayak Municipality, Middle Karnali Watershed, Nepal

Evaluation of freshwater springs utilizing benthic macroinvertebrates as key bioindicators in the Panchadewal Binayak Municipality, Middle Karnali Watershed, Nepal

Correction to: Exploring the Potential of Thermal Remote Sensing for Marine Freshwater Springs Identification in the United Arab Emirates

Correction to: Exploring the Potential of Thermal Remote Sensing for Marine Freshwater Springs Identification in the United Arab Emirates

Exploring the Potential of Thermal Remote Sensing for Marine Freshwater Springs Identification in the United Arab Emirates

Exploring the Potential of Thermal Remote Sensing for Marine Freshwater Springs Identification in the United Arab Emirates

Using Geochemical Tracers to Determine Seasonal Inputs of Freshwater to a Coastal Estuary: Biscayne Bay, FL

Biscayne Bay is a coastal estuary that historically relied on rainfall and groundwater inputs from the karst Biscayne aquifer. The construction of major canals along the coastline has released point-source freshwater inputs into the bay, detrimentally affecting the Bay’s ecosystem balance. This project investigates the proportional inputs of freshwater between the wet and dry seasons in Deering Estate, adjacent to Biscayne Bay. The objective of this project was accomplished by analyzing the water chemistry of the bay using naturally occurring geochemical tracers. Water sampling occurred from May to August (wet season 2022) and January to March (dry season 2023); at an inland freshwater spring and on Biscayne Bay. Water samples were analyzed for δ18O and δ2H values, and Sr2+/Ca2+ ratios as geochemical tracers. The highest and lowest salinity values observed in the wet and dry seasons, at both the freshwater spring and Biscayne Bay sites, were before and after a major rain event, respectively. The chemical analysis supports that rain is the dominant source of freshwater input into the bay at our sampling location, and the freshwater spring is dominated by groundwater and canal water during the wet season. During the dry season, groundwater and canal water are the dominant source for the sampling location in Biscayne Bay and the dominant source of freshwater input for the freshwater spring. However, all three endmembers contribute seasonally. Understanding freshwater inputs to this crucial estuary will provide important information for current restoration efforts of Biscayne Bay, specifically around the Deering Estate area.

A large non-parasitic population of Savalia savaglia (Bertoloni, 1819) in the Boka Kotorska Bay (Montenegro)

The golden coral Savalia savaglia is a long-living ecosystem engineer of Mediterranean circalittoral assemblages, able to induce necrosis of gorgonians’ and black corals’ coenenchyme and grow on their cleaned organic skeleton. Despite its rarity, in Boka Kotorska Bay (Montenegro) a shallow population of more than 1000 colonies was recorded close to underwater freshwater springs, which create very peculiar environmental conditions. In this context, the species was extremely abundant at two sites, while gorgonians were rare. The abundance and size of S. savaglia colonies and the diversity of the entire benthic assemblage were investigated by photographic sampling in a depth range of 0–35 m. Several living fragments of S. savaglia spread on the sea floor and small settled colonies (< 5 cm high) suggested a high incidence of asexual reproduction and a non-parasitic behaviour of this population. This was confirmed by studying thin sections of the basal portion of the trunk where the central core, generally represented by the remains of the gorgonian host skeleton, was lacking. The S. savaglia population of Boka Kotorska Bay forms the unique Mediterranean assemblage of the species deserving the definition of animal forest. Recently, temporary mitigation measures for anthropogenic impact were issued by the Government of Montenegro. Nevertheless, due to the importance of the sites the establishment of a permanent Marine Protected Area is strongly recommended.

Water properties and quality of the largest rice production region in Japan and their influence on the reproduction of zebrafish.

The health of freshwater aquarium fish and their breeding success depend critically on the quality of tap water. In general, tap water in Japan is potable, although the properties of tap water vary among regions in Japan. The city of Niigata is located in the largest rice production region of Japan. We have faced challenges concerning the reproduction of freshwater aquarium fish in Niigata. To determine whether water properties and quality affect the reproduction of aquarium fish in Niigata, we investigated the chemical properties of water and raised zebrafish in water from three different sources, namely tap water of Niigata in May, artificial freshwater (i.e., prepared via reverse osmosis), and natural spring water of Gosen, to document any effects on their sexual maturation and reproduction. We found that the tap water of Niigata was not stable throughout a year (median electrical conductivity = 147.1 μS/cm; SD = 25.6), with springtime lower than the first quartile. We also found that low concentrations of four pesticides in the tap water have been detected in May (max. concentration in 2020, bromobutide 2,000ng/L, butachlor 600ng/L, pyraclonil 200ng/L, ipfencarbazone 20ng/L). Moreover, rearing zebrafish in tap water negatively influenced both fish growth and reproduction: The sex ratio of adults was male biased (proportion of F0 male 70.8%); the average total length (30.5mm) and weight (182mg) of F0 males was decreased; the GSI of F0 females (9.7%) was decreased; the fecundity (the mating success 58.7%; the number of F1 eggs 63.1) of adults was reduced. Rearing in artificial freshwater could improve these outcomes (the sex ratio 55.7%; the total length of F0 males 31.8mm; the weight of F0 males 211mg; the GSI of F0 females 11.7%; the mating success 72.6%; the number of F1 eggs 99.0), whereas rearing in natural spring water from Gosen could improve the sex ratio (56.3%) and the weight of F0 males (200mg), but not the others. Therefore, artificial freshwater made via reverse osmosis should be used for breeding freshwater aquarium fish in rice production region like Niigata. Finally, our results demonstrate that the reproduction of freshwater aquarium fish can serve as a bioindicator of low levels of organic pollutants in tap water and thus provide a basis for evaluating the safety of tap water for human consumption.

Extreme fluctuations in ambient salinity select for bacteria with a hybrid “salt-in”/”salt-out” osmoregulation strategy

Abundant microbial biofilms inhabit underwater freshwater springs of the Dead Sea. Unlike the harsh (i.e., over 35% total dissolved salts) yet stable environment of the basin, the flow rate of the springs changes with random amplitude and duration, resulting in drastic shifts in salinity, pH, and oxygen concentrations. This requires the organisms to continuously adapt to new environmental conditions. Osmotic regulation is energetically expensive; therefore, the response of the biofilm organisms to rapid and drastic changes in salinity is interesting. For this purpose, we studied the metagenome of an enrichment culture obtained from a green biofilm-covered rock positioned in a spring. We obtained metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of Prosthecochloris sp. (Chlorobiales), Flexistipes sp. (Deferribacterales), Izemoplasma (Izemoplasmatales), Halomonas sp. (Oceanospirillales), and Halanaerobium (Halanaerobiales). The MAGs contain genes for both the energetically cheaper “salt-in” and more expensive “salt-out” strategies. We suggest that the dynamic response of these bacteria utilizes both osmoregulation strategies, similar to halophilic archaea. We hypothesize that the frequent, abrupt, and variable-in-intensity shifts in salinity, typical of the Dead Sea spring system, select for microorganisms with scalable adaptation strategies.

Co-Production of Knowledge at Sumida Farm Trains a New Generation of Community-Engaged Scientists

The Sumida watercress farm near Pu‘uloa (Pearl Harbor), O‘ahu has been in continuous operation since 1928. This family-run farm (Figure 1a) produces 70% of the state’s watercress crop, making it critical to Hawai‘i’s food production. The farm’s watercress relies completely on water from freshwater springs. However, the amount of water flowing from the springs has declined by half over the last century as a result of groundwater pumping, climate change, and other drivers (Oki, 2005). Mo‘olelo (oral histories) published in Hawaiian language newspapers from 1834 to 1948 document the springs’ use for agriculture and recreation by Hawaiian ali‘i (chiefs) for more than 1,000 years (Engels et al., 2020).

Phylogenetic diversity of prokaryotes from the Churek-Dorgun cold spring (Tuva Republic)

For the first time, the composition of microbial communities in the sediments of the cold freshwater spring Churek-Dorgun, located in the Kaa-Khem district of the Republic of Tuva, was studied using high-throughput sequencing. According to the chemical composition, the water of the Churek-Dorgun spring belonged to the sulfate-hydrocarbonate calcium type with weak mineralization (0.39 g / L) and neutral pH values (6.8 - 7.3). According to the sequencing results, 38,066 reads of 16S rRNA gene belonging to the Bacteria and Archaea domains were identified in the sediments sample. Archaea accounted for 0.27% of the microorganisms, with the phylum Methanobacteriota predominating. In total, 23 phyla in the bacterial microbial community were identified. Three bacterial phyla - Pseudomonadota, Bacillota, and Bacteroidota - which are typical of freshwater microbial communities dominated. The basis of the silt microbial community was widespread widespread in different ecosystems microorganisms: Aeromonas, Psychrosinus, Malikia, Dechloromonas, Sunxiuqinia, Thiobacillus, Geobacter, Litorilinea, Giesbergeria and Rivibacter. They have different physiological properties and metabolism. Microorganisms involved in the sulfur cycle were also found in the silt, including chemolithotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria of the genus Thiobacillus (class Betaproteobacteria, 3.02%), microaerophilic sulfur-reducing bacteria of the genus Geobacter (class Deltaproteobacteria, 2.86%), and sulfate-reducing Deltaproteobacteria.

Diversity of aquatic parasites in pristine spring waters in Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Pakistan.

Global access to clean and safe drinking water remains a formidable challenge, contributing to a myriad of health issues. This research exposes the existence of waterborne parasites in seemingly pristine spring waters, indicating potential contamination. Daily extensive sampling of Seventeen water sources was conducted in the untarnished freshwater streams of Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, from February to September 2021. Employing a stringent filtration process, the collected samples were effectively concentrated to detect any waterborne parasites. Subsequent application of the wet mount technique, combined with the capabilities of a compound microscope, revealed a disconcerting reality: all examined samples tested positive for various parasites. Identified parasites included Schistosoma species, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichiuria trichiuria, Taenia saginata, Entamoeba histolytica, Amoeba, Lacrymana olor, Tintinnids, Paramecium, Dileptus, Euglena, Loxodes striatus, Acanthocyclops lynceus, Spondylosium, Oscillatoria, Cyanobacteria, Cilindros, Cilindros cerro, Commensal amoeba mature cysts,, Filliform larva of Strongyloides, Cercaria larva, Larva of Taenia solium, Egg of Enterobius vermiculais, Egg of Isospora belli, Egg of Tapeworm, Egg of Schistosoma species, Egg of Toxocara, and Egg of Diphyllobothrium latum. These findings clearly demonstrate the presence of a diverse array of parasites in the freshwater springs of Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Pakistan. Implementing robust water treatment protocols, conducting regular monitoring and testing, and raising awareness about the risks of waterborne parasites are crucial steps to safeguard public health in the region.