Conservation Of Freshwater Mussels Research Articles

DNA Barcoding Permits Identification of Potential Fish Hosts of Unionid Freshwater Mussels

Fish have an ecologically significant role in the life-history of unionid freshwater mussels, as the larvae of most species are obligate ectoparasites (glochidia) on fish hosts. Although this ecological interaction is vital to freshwater mussel conservation, there is a paucity of data on fish-host specificity for many species. A species-specific DNA barcoding dataset utilizing the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1) gene was used to identify 154 glochidia attached to wild fish collected from March through August of 2013 in the Sabine and Neches rivers in Texas, U.S.A. These data include the first report of potential hosts for two state-threatened species, Fusconaia askewi (Marsh, 1896) and Pleurobema riddellii (I. Lea, 1862), as well as potential hosts for Amblema plicata (Say, 1817), Obliquaria reflexa (Rafinesque, 1820), Plectomerus dombeyanus (Valenciennes, 1827), Potamilus purpuratus (Lamarck, 1819), Quadrula mortoni (I. Lea, 1831), Q. verrucosa (Rafinesque, 1820), and Truncilla truncata (Rafinesque, 1820). Cyprinella lutrensis appears to be the primary host for F. askewi, as 50% (54/108) of its glochidia were found on this minnow species alone. Pleurobema riddellii may be a cyprinid specialist, infesting only C. lutrensis and Pimephales vigilax. Alternatively, F. askewi may be a host generalist, as glochidia were found encysted on 17 fish species suggesting that host fish availability may not be an important factor contributing to observed population declines. The findings here will be instrumental in the future conservation of these species, through the translocation to correct habitat and developing successful propagation programs

Freshwater mussels from South America: state of the art of Unionida, specially Rhipidodontini

Abstract Unionida is the most diverse clade of freshwater bivalves. Among the groups occurring in South America, one with the highest number of species is Rhipidodontini (Hyriidae, Unionida, Paleoheterodonta, Bivalvia). However several issues remains on taxonomy and systematic of this group, leading to problems on species identification, description, as also as a limiting factor to other type of studies (e.g., ecology, conservation,…). In this paper is presented a synthesis of available knowledge about Diplodon Spix in Wagner, 1827 and Rhipidodonta Mörch, 1853 in South America, as a first step in order to a better understating of Rhipidodontini. The evaluation of different authors exposes the little agreement between them that resulted in a sort of divergent taxonomical opinions. Some comments on ecology, conservation and habitat preferences were made. This work can also encourage future research on taxonomy, systematic, ecology and conservation of freshwater mussels in South America.

Fish and mussels: Importance of fish for freshwater mussel conservation

AbstractCo‐extinctions are increasingly recognized as one of the major processes leading to the global biodiversity crisis, but there is still limited scientific evidence on the magnitude of potential impacts and causal mechanisms responsible for the decline of affiliate (dependent) species. Freshwater mussels (Bivalvia, Unionida), one of the most threatened faunal groups on Earth, need to pass through a parasitic larval (glochidia) phase using fishes as hosts to complete their life cycle. Here, we provide a synthesis of published evidence on the fish–mussel relationship to explore possible patterns in co‐extinction risk and discuss the main threats affecting this interaction. We retrieved 205 publications until December 2015, most of which were performed in North America, completed under laboratory conditions and were aimed at characterizing the life cycle and/or determining the suitable fish hosts for freshwater mussels. Mussel species were reported to infest between one and 53 fish species, with some fish families (e.g., Cyprinidae and Percidae) being used more often as hosts than others. No relationship was found between the breadth of host use and the extinction risk of freshwater mussels. Very few studies focused on threats affecting the fish–mussel relationship, a knowledge gap that may impair the application of future conservation measures. Here, we identify a variety of threats that may negatively affect fish species, document and discuss the concomitant impacts on freshwater mussels, and suggest directions for future studies.

Diversity, biogeography and conservation of freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionida) in East and Southeast Asia

Recent research efforts have significantly advanced our knowledge on Asian freshwater mussel (Bivalvia: Unionida) diversity and distribution. Here we provide a modern consensus of the diversity, biogeography and conservation of Unionida in the region comprising East and Southeast Asia (excluding Wallacea) and Asian Russia. A data review confirmed the presence of 228 native and 3 non-native Unionida (98% Unionidae, 2% Margaritiferidae), rendering the region a global hotspot of freshwater mussel diversity. Species richness was highest in China (particularly Yangtze basin) in absolute numbers and Cambodia when correcting for country area, and decreased gradually towards the south and steeply towards the north and east. Six of the seven unionid subfamilies are native to the region, with species richness peaking in Southeast Asia for Rectidentinae, Gonideinae, Parreysiinae and Modellnaiinae, China for Anodontinae and Unioninae, and Asian Russia for Margaritiferidae. Conservation status and data collected after 1980 were not available for 61 and 24% of species, respectively. Dams, deforestation and pollution are likely the major threats to mussels in the region, though data in this respect are scarce. The Philippines, Laos, Indonesia, Myanmar and Malaysia are among the countries with the poorest data availability and urgently require research.

An Evaluation of Streamflow Augmentation as a Short-Term Freshwater Mussel Conservation Strategy

Recurrent and prolonged droughts, coupled with increased water resource demand, threaten freshwater mussel populations through stream drying and water quality degradation. Augmentation of stream discharge was proposed as a short-term strategy to maintain adequate streamflows and water quality in reaches with important freshwater mussel populations during exceptionally low flow periods. We investigated the effects of water augmentation on seven freshwater mussel species in a small creek between 2011 and 2014. Using capture-mark-recapture methods, we monitored mussel populations in a control reach upstream of an augmentation outlet and two reaches immediately downstream of an augmentation outlet. Water quality measurements during our study indicated that augmentation improved water temperature and dissolved oxygen conditions during low flow periods. For all mussel species, apparent survival was positively related to minimum streamflows and declined precipitously as streamflows decreased. However, mean apparent survival between sampling occasions was high among all species but did not differ among treatment units, suggesting that flow augmentation rates in this study were insufficient for abating the effects of basin-wide reductions in streamflow. Temporary emigration differed among study reaches but did not support hypothesized relationships because it increased with stream stage and was highest in an augmented reach. This suggests that streamflows did not drop below thresholds, which invoked burrowing as a response to decreased streamflows. Streamflow augmentation may be a viable short-term mussel conservation strategy in small streams but will likely require higher augmentation volume capacity than evaluated during our study. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Fish and mussels: importance of fish for freshwater mussel conservation

Event Abstract Back to Event Fish and mussels: importance of fish for freshwater mussel conservation Ronaldo Sousa1, 2*, Vanessa Modesto2, Allan T. Souza2 and Martina Ilarri2 1 CBMA – Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal., Portugal 2 CIMAR-LA/CIIMAR – Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Porto, Portugal., Portugal Co-extinctions have received trivial consideration in discussions about the global conservation crisis, even though recent studies have emphasised their importance. This situation is even more pronounced in freshwater ecosystems where this phenomenon is largely unrecognized. In this presentation we explore the role of fish for freshwater mussels’ conservation. Freshwater mussels’ need fish as a host to complete their life cycle and given this premise is expected that changes in the fish community due to species extinctions or additions may have great effects. We reviewed the published information and we found: 1) that most of the studies were published in the last few years; 2) that most of the studies were performed in North America (69%), which is probably due to the high number of endemic threatened species in this continent; 3) that most of the mussel species that are specialists in fish hosting are listed as vulnerable or endangered (55%); 4) most studies were performed in laboratory (83%) and 5) that the majority of studies were focused on life cycle or on identifying suitable fish hosts of freshwater mussel species with few studies focusing on threats. Since the interaction between fish and freshwater mussels can be easily disrupted and serious threats to this interaction have arisen (e.g. loss and fragmentation of habitat, changes in river flow, climate change, introduction of invasive species, pollution) a more holistic approach is needed to find the best management strategies to conserve these animals. In addition, more field studies are required and more information on African, South American and Asian species is essential. Neglect the possible fundamental role of fish in the decline or extinction of freshwater mussels may impair the success of any measure devoted to their conservation; therefore, this issue cannot be ignored. Keywords: fish, Freshwater mussels, conservation, Co-extinction, Host-Parasite Interactions Conference: XV European Congress of Ichthyology, Porto, Portugal, 7 Sep - 11 Sep, 2015. Presentation Type: Oral Presentation Topic: Ecology, Conservation and Invasive Species Citation: Sousa R, Modesto V, Souza AT and Ilarri M (2015). Fish and mussels: importance of fish for freshwater mussel conservation. Front. Mar. Sci. Conference Abstract: XV European Congress of Ichthyology. doi: 10.3389/conf.FMARS.2015.03.00239 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 20 Dec 2015; Published Online: 21 Dec 2015. * Correspondence: Prof. Ronaldo Sousa, CBMA – Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal., Braga, Portugal, ronaldo.sousa@ciimar.up.pt Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Ronaldo Sousa Vanessa Modesto Allan T Souza Martina Ilarri Google Ronaldo Sousa Vanessa Modesto Allan T Souza Martina Ilarri Google Scholar Ronaldo Sousa Vanessa Modesto Allan T Souza Martina Ilarri PubMed Ronaldo Sousa Vanessa Modesto Allan T Souza Martina Ilarri Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Nontargeted metabolomics reveals biochemical pathways altered in response to captivity and food limitation in the freshwater mussel Amblema plicata

Effective conservation of freshwater mussels (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Unionidae), one of the most endangered groups of animals in North America, is compromised by limited knowledge of their health. We address this gap in knowledge by characterizing the metabolic profile of Amblema plicata in the wild and in response to captivity and food limitation. Eight mussels brought into captivity from the wild were isolated for 18days without a food source. Hemolymph samples were taken prior to, and 9 and 18days after the start of the experiment; these samples were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. We detected and identified 71 biochemicals in the hemolymph of freshwater mussels; of these, 49 showed significant changes during captivity and/or food limitation (p<0.05). Fasting resulted in severe metabolite depletion. Captive (but fed) mussels experienced changes similar to (albeit less severe than) fasting mussels, suggesting that mussels may experience nutritional deficiency under common captive conditions. A. plicata responded to food limitation stress by preferentially using energy reserves for maintenance rather than growth. Carbohydrate and energy metabolism exhibited down-regulation in captive, food-limited, and wild mussels. Lipid metabolism was up-regulated in captive/food-limited mussels and unchanged in wild mussels. Amino acid metabolism was up-regulated in wild mussels and down-regulated in captive/food-limited mussels. Nucleotide metabolism was up-regulated in the wild mussels, down-regulated in food-limited mussels, and unchanged in captive mussels. The different responses between treatment groups suggest potential for nucleotide metabolism as a biomarker of health status for freshwater mussels.

Freshwater Mussel Population Status and Habitat Quality in the Clinch River, Virginia and Tennessee, USA: A Featured Collection

AbstractThe Clinch River of southwestern Virginia and northeastern Tennessee is arguably the most important river for freshwater mussel conservation in the United States. This featured collection presents investigations of mussel population status and habitat quality in the Clinch River. Analyses of historic water‐ and sediment‐quality data suggest that water column ammonia and water column and sediment metals, including Cu and Zn, may have contributed historically to declining densities and extirpations of mussels in the river's Virginia sections. These studies also reveal increasing temporal trends for dissolved solids concentrations throughout much of the river's extent. Current mussel abundance patterns do not correspond spatially with physical habitat quality, but they do correspond with specific conductance, dissolved major ions, and water column metals, suggesting these and/or associated constituents as factors contributing to mussel declines. Mussels are sensitive to metals. Native mussels and hatchery‐raised mussels held in cages in situ accumulated metals in their body tissues in river sections where mussels are declining. Organic compound and bed‐sediment contaminant analyses did not reveal spatial correspondences with mussel status metrics, although potentially toxic levels were found. Collectively, these studies identify major ions and metals as water‐ and sediment‐quality concerns for mussel conservation in the Clinch River.

Changes in the distributions of freshwater mussels (Unionoida: Hyriidae) in coastal south‐eastern Australia and implications for their conservation status

ABSTRACT The conservation of freshwater mussels is neglected in Australia, and poor historical data may mask trends in species’ range and abundance. A combined‐evidence approach using published data, targeted surveys, historical records and a GIS‐based, reach‐scale measure of physical habitat quality was used to assess trends in the distributions of nine species in the south‐eastern coastal region. Geomorphic impairment is widespread in upland and lowland streams, but not in rugged escarpment zones, with 16.8% of rivers in ‘poor’ geomorphic condition, 39.6% in ‘moderate’ condition and 43.6% of rivers in the region in ‘good’ condition. Reductions of 44.4, 12.5 and 39.7% in site occupancy over the past 200 years were estimated for Hyridella depressa, Hyridella drapeta and Hyridella australis from logistic regression models of occupancy versus river geomorphic condition. Nonetheless, all species remain widely distributed and qualify as ‘least concern’ according to IUCN Red List criteria. Hyridella narracanensis and Hyridella glenelgensis have fragmented or limited ranges and are vulnerable to threats, and both appear to meet IUCN Red List criteria for threatened species. The former species is listed as ‘data deficient’ but arguably should be ‘vulnerable’ as documented here. The latter species is not included on the IUCN Red List. Under the Australian EPBC Act (1999), H. narracanensis is not listed while H. glenelgensis is listed as ‘critically endangered’. The Tasmanian endemic, Velesunio moretonicus, shows some evidence of decline but its population status is equivocal owing to the lack of monitoring data. It would qualify as ‘data deficient’. The three remaining species, Cucumerunio novaehollandiae, Alathyria profuga and Velesunio ambiguus are widely distributed and show no evidence of decline. Additional surveys are needed to determine the current status and spatial distribution of freshwater mussel species in the region, and to establish baselines for future monitoring. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Critical linkage of imperiled species: Gulf Sturgeon as host for Purple Bankclimber mussels

AbstractOne of the largest impediments to the conservation of freshwater mussels is the absence of host-fish data. Suitable hosts must be present in sufficient numbers and occur at the appropriate time for successful mussel recruitment. Habitat degradation and fragmentation caused by dams and other anthropogenic alterations may reduce host availability. Host data are lacking for the federally threatened Purple Bankclimber mussel (Elliptoideus sloatianus), which is endemic to the Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint basin (ACF) in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, and the Ochlockonee basin in Florida and Georgia. We tested 29 fish species in 7 families as potential hosts for Purple Bankclimbers and observed high metamorphosis success (79–89%) with 4 species of sturgeon: Gulf (Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi), Atlantic (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus), Lake (Acipenser fulvescens), and Shortnose (Acipenser brevirostrum). Metamorphosis was less successful with Blackbanded Darters (Percina nigrofasciata) and Halloween ...

Biogeography and conservation of freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) in Texas: patterns of diversity and threats

AbstractAim Geographic patterns of species distributions and the factors contributing to species endangerment are necessary for the development of integrative conservation strategies. Freshwater mussels Unionidae have among the highest levels of imperilment recorded in North America. This paper describes the biogeography and diversity of Unionidae along climate and habitat gradients in Texas, evaluates human impact, and identifies the hot spots of diversity and endemism that should be targeted for conservation.Location Texas, North America.Methods Unionids were surveyed in all major Texas river basins in 2003–2009. Multivariate statistics were used to test for differences in environmental parameters and among unionid assemblages in different bioprovinces, and to determine to what extent the multivariate pattern of species distribution was affected by environmental factors. To estimate human impact, we examined the relationship between human population density and the proportion of rare species, as well with the proportion of historically present species that persist in the watershed.Results Correlation between biotic and environmental similarity matrices indicated concordance in the differences among unionid assemblages and environmental factors that could cause these differences. Lake surface evaporation rate and percentage of forest cover in the watershed were among the most important parameters explaining the differences in unionid assemblages. Human population density was negatively correlated with the proportion of rare species. The proportion of species found live relative to the total number of live and relic species found in our surveys and to the number of historically known species decreased with the increase in human population density.Main conclusions Climate, landscape, geology, and land use type were important factors influencing unionid distribution patterns among biotic provinces. Increased human population density was associated with the loss of rare species over several decades, but this loss was not recognized because of a lack of assessing the conservation status of unionids.

Captive breeding of the endangered freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera

Freshwater pearl mussels (Unionidae: Bivalvia) rank among the most endangered aquatic invertebrates, and this has recently prompted a number of initiatives designed to propagate the species through captive breeding. Yet there are few guidelines to aid in freshwater mussel culture for conservation, and few or no results on the fate of released juveniles. We reviewed various ex situ strategies for freshwater mussel conservation with emphasis on the freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera (L.), one of the most critically endangered unionids. Captive breeding could help safeguard critically endangered populations, but current rearing methods need to be optimised. Areas in particular need of research include the collection and storage of viable glochidia, the development of efficient rearing systems, and the formulation of algal diets. Likewise, the degree of host specificity warrants further investigation, as this will largely dictate the success of reintroduction programmes. Finally, we note that more information is needed on the degree of genetic structuring and post-release survival before translocation programmes can be recommended. As with other conservation projects, captive breeding of the freshwater pearl mussel cannot compensate for loss of critical habitats and is likely to be most efficient in combination with in situ conservation, not in isolation.

The consequences of water release from a dam reservoirfor freshwater mussel survival: recommendations for improved management.

Goląb M.J., Lipinska A.M., Cmiel A.M.: The consequences of water release from a dam reservoir for freshwater mussel survival: recommendations for improved management. ekologia (Bratislava), vol. 29, no. 4, p. 454–459, 2010. dam reservoirs may play an important role in threatened freshwater mussel conservation. However, the restoration works on a dam and their consequences can threaten whole mussel populations. This study investigates the consequences of water release in the Czorsztyn reservoir in order to improve management of dam reservoirs. The analysis shows that the reservoir’s water releases caused massive death of freshwater mussels. The main threat for mussel survival was probably flat slopes that disturbed both their ability to perceive slope gradient and the possibility to escape. in order to decrease the losses of freshwater mussel populations, it is necessary to remodel a part of the reservoir bowl’s shore and to create a refugium for the mussels. if terracing across the slopes is necessary, the steps should not be entirely plain, but tilted towards the water.

A methodological framework for integrating computational fluid dynamics and ecological models applied to juvenile freshwater mussel dispersal in the Upper Mississippi River

Interdisciplinary research in hydraulics and ecology for river management and restoration must integrate processes that occur over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, which presents a challenge to ecohydraulics modelers. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models are being more widely used to determine flow fields for ecohydraulics applications. In the Upper Mississippi River (UMR), the mussel dynamics model was developed as a tool for management and conservation of freshwater mussels (Unionidae), which are benthic organisms, imperiled in North America, that are inextricably linked with the hydraulics of river flow. We updated the juvenile dispersal component of the mussel dynamics model by using stochastic Lagrangian particle tracking in a three dimensional flow field output from CFD models of reaches in the UMR. We developed a methodological framework to integrate hydrodynamic data with the mussel dynamics model, and we demonstrate the use of the juvenile dispersal model employed within the methodological framework in two reaches of the UMR. The method was used to test the hypothesis that impoundment affects the relationship of some hydraulic parameters with juvenile settling distribution. Simulation results were consistent with this hypothesis, and the relationships of bed shear stress and Froude number with juvenile settling were altered by impoundment most likely through effects on local hydraulics. The methodological framework is robust, integrates Eulerian and Lagrangian reference frameworks, and incorporates processes over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, from watershed scale hydrologic processes (decades), to reach scale (km) processes that occur over hours or days, and turbulent processes on spatial scales of meter to millimeter and times scales of seconds. The methods are presently being used to assess the impacts of pre- and early post-settlement processes on mussel distributions, including the effects of bed shear stress, and the sensitivity of the location of the host fish when juveniles excyst, on juvenile settling distribution.

Field Evaluation of Mortality from Hemolymph Extraction as a Source of DNA, and Application to PCR-RFLP Identification of Threatened Freshwater Mussel Species

Evolutionary convergence and plasticity of shell characters creates great confusion in freshwater mussel systematics and complicates field census efforts. Genetic identification offers a powerful alternative. But methods involving DNA sequencing are expensive and require tissue sampling, whose effects on survival and health of animals from natural populations have seldom been assessed. We used hemolymph sampling as a nonlethal source of tissue for DNA extraction, and developed genetic identification methods using Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis as an alternative for field surveys. We focused on two morphologically similar endemic species in Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina: the abundant Elliptio waccamawensis and the less common Lampsilis fullerkati. These served as models for surveyors who are often faced with conducting accurate census of cryptic rare species that co-occur with more common forms. Hemolymph-sampled and control individuals of these two species and Leptodea ochracea were caged together in enclosures in Lake Waccamaw. Eight-week survival was 100% and we detected no significant effect of hemolymph extraction on shell growth. PCR-RFLP analysis of the 16s rRNA gene reliably identified species and detected cases of morphological misidentification, both in these collections and from belt transects in the lake. We also developed PCR-RFLP markers that distinguished pairs of cryptic taxa from surveys of streams in southeastern North Carolina. Our results show how nonlethal tissue sampling and PCR-RFLP assays designed for a regional fauna can be useful tools in freshwater mussel conservation programs.

A Survey of the Indigenous Microbiota (Bacteria) In Three Species of Mussels from the Clinch and Holston Rivers, Virginia

Freshwater mussel conservation efforts by many federal and state agencies have increased in recent years. This has led to a greater number of stream surveys, in which mussel die-offs involving high numbers of dead and moribund animals are being observed and reported with greater frequency. Typically, die-offs have been incidentally observed while research was being done for other purposes, therefore, accurate mortality data have been difficult to obtain. Specifically, seasonal die-offs were noted in localized areas of the Clinch and Holston Rivers, Virginia, and to lesser degrees, in neighboring rivers in this geographic region, including southeast Virginia. The observed mussel species affected were primarily the slabside pearlymussel (Lexingtonia dolabelloides) and to lesser extents, the pheasantshell (Actinonaias pectorosa), rainbow mussel (Villosa iris), and the endangered shiny pigtoe (Fusconaia cor). To determine if a bacterial pathogen might be involved in these recurring mussel die-offs, this study examined characteristics of the indigenous microbiota (bacteria) from healthy mussels from sites on the Clinch and Holston Rivers where die-offs were previously observed. These baseline data will allow for recognition of bacterial pathogens in future mussel die-offs. Means for total bacteria from soft tissues ranged from 1.77 × 105 to 3.55 × 106 cfu/g; whereas, the range in means from fluids was 2.92 × 104 to 8.60 × 105 cfu/mL. A diverse microbiota were recovered, including species that are common in freshwater aquatic environments. The most common bacterial groups recovered were motile Aeromonas spp. and nonfermenting bacteria. Flavobacterium columnare, a pathogen to cool- and warm-water fishes was recovered from one specimen, a Villosa iris from the Clinch River.

Needs for Research in Biological Conservation of Freshwater Mussels in the Southeastern United States: An Annotated Outline

Needs for Research in Biological Conservation of Freshwater Mussels in the Southeastern United States: An Annotated Outline

The Necessity of State Legislation in the Conservation of Fresh-Water Mussels

The Necessity of State Legislation in the Conservation of Fresh-Water Mussels