Surface Freshwater Research Articles

Space and time scales of sea surface salinity and freshwater forcing variability in the global ocean (60°S–60°N)

AbstractUsing Aquarius Version‐4.0 data, we have investigated the time and space scales of sea surface salinity (SSS) over the global ocean between 60°S and 60°N. Decorrelation time scales of SSS were found to be divided among less than 80 days (covering 1/2 of ocean area), 80–100 days (1/3), and greater than 100 days (remainder). Once the seasonal cycle is removed, shorter time scales (less than 80 days) dominate. Spatial scales are largest in the tropics along the intertropical convergence zones of all oceans and the South Pacific convergence zone in the South Pacific. Time scales were also calculated for time‐integrated (cumulative) surface freshwater forcing (CFWF) using precipitation from Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission and evaporation from OAFlux data. These showed little spatial pattern, but a dominance of the seasonal and longer time scales over the globe. The lack of correspondence between dominant temporal and spatial scales of SSS and CFWF highlights the importance of ocean processes in regulating SSS variability.

Developing reservoir monthly inflow forecasts using artificial intelligence and climate phenomenon information

AbstractReservoirs are fundamental human‐built infrastructures that collect, store, and deliver fresh surface water in a timely manner for many purposes. Efficient reservoir operation requires policy makers and operators to understand how reservoir inflows are changing under different hydrological and climatic conditions to enable forecast‐informed operations. Over the last decade, the uses of Artificial Intelligence and Data Mining [AI & DM] techniques in assisting reservoir streamflow subseasonal to seasonal forecasts have been increasing. In this study, Random Forest [RF), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), and Support Vector Regression (SVR) are employed and compared with respect to their capabilities for predicting 1 month‐ahead reservoir inflows for two headwater reservoirs in USA and China. Both current and lagged hydrological information and 17 known climate phenomenon indices, i.e., PDO and ENSO, etc., are selected as predictors for simulating reservoir inflows. Results show (1) three methods are capable of providing monthly reservoir inflows with satisfactory statistics; (2) the results obtained by Random Forest have the best statistical performances compared with the other two methods; (3) another advantage of Random Forest algorithm is its capability of interpreting raw model inputs; (4) climate phenomenon indices are useful in assisting monthly or seasonal forecasts of reservoir inflow; and (5) different climate conditions are autocorrelated with up to several months, and the climatic information and their lags are cross correlated with local hydrological conditions in our case studies.

Spatiotemporal patterns of paralytic shellfish toxins and their relationships with environmental variables in British Columbia, Canada from 2002 to 2012

BackgroundHarmful algal blooms produce paralytic shellfish toxins that accumulate in the tissues of filter feeding shellfish. Ingestion of these toxic shellfish can cause a serious and potentially fatal condition known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). The coast of British Columbia is routinely monitored for shellfish toxicity, and this study uses data from the monitoring program to identify spatiotemporal patterns in shellfish toxicity events and their relationships with environmental variables. MethodsThe dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium produces the most potent paralytic shellfish toxin, saxitoxin (STX). Data on all STX measurements were obtained from 49 different shellfish monitoring sites along the coast of British Columbia for 2002–2012, and monthly toxicity events were identified. We performed hierarchical cluster analysis to group sites that had events in similar areas with similar timing. Machine learning techniques were used to model the complex relationships between toxicity events and environmental variables in each group. ResultsThe Strait of Georgia and the west coast of Vancouver Island had unique toxicity regimes. Out of the seven environmental variables used, toxicity in each cluster could be described by multivariable models including monthly sea surface temperature, air temperature, sea surface salinity, freshwater discharge, upwelling, and photosynthetically active radiation. The sea surface salinity and freshwater discharge variables produced the strongest univariate models for both geographic areas. ConclusionsApplying these methods in coastal regions could allow for the prediction of shellfish toxicity events by environmental conditions. This has the potential to optimize biotoxin monitoring, improve public health surveillance, and engage the shellfish industry in helping to reduce the risk of PSP.

О низкочастотной изменчивости баланса осадки-испарение на границе океана и атмосферы в Атлантическом океане

Spatial distribution of climatic variables and linear trends of surface freshwater flux (precipitation minus evaporation) has been analyzed based on NCEP reanalysis monthly dataset for 1948-2012. Low- frequency surface freshwater flux variability’ (more than 10 and 30 years) has been estimated in the present study.

Development of a Resin Wafer Electrodeionization Process for Impaired Water Desalination with High Energy Efficiency and Productivity

Use of groundwater, reclaimed water, and other impaired water sources is a critical strategy for fresh surface water conservation. Because impaired water desalination by reverse osmosis is energy-intensive, a robust ion-exchange resin wafer electrodeionization technology was developed to conserve energy during impaired water desalination. The loose ion-exchange resin beads were immobilized and molded to form a porous resin wafer material and utilized for impaired water desalination. In this study, the impaired water desalination using resin wafer electrodeionization was evaluated along with various key performance indicators, including current efficiency, energy efficiency, and productivity. Results suggest that resin wafer electrodeionization can improve energy efficiency to >35% in comparison to that of reverse osmosis (normally ∼12%) for impaired water desalination. The energy consumption of resin wafer electrodeionization was found to be 0.354–0.657 kWh/m3 with a productivity of 20.1–41.3 L h–1 m–2 (i...

‘Snorkel’ lice barrier technology reduced two co- occurring parasites, the salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) and the amoebic gill disease causing agent (Neoparamoeba perurans), in commercial salmon sea-cages

Diverse chemical-free parasite controls are gaining status in Atlantic salmon sea-cage farming. Yet, the intricacies of their use at commercial scale, including effects on co-occurring parasites, are seldom reported. A new salmon lice prevention method involves installing a deep net roof and ‘snorkel’ lice barrier in cages to shelter salmon from free-living infective larvae which concentrate at shallow depths, and allows salmon to jump and re- inflate their buoyancy-regulating swim bladder by swallowing air. We document use of snorkel cages (10m deep barrier) in commercial farms, where their effects on salmon lice levels, amoebic gill disease (AGD)-related gill scores, the cage environment, fish welfare and farm management practices were compared to standard cages. During an autumn–winter study involving only snorkel cages, high AGD-related gill scores were observed to decline when freshwater was pumped into snorkels, creating a freshwater surface layer for salmon to enter for self-treatment. In a spring–summer study incorporating snorkel and standard cages, snorkel cages were found to reduce new lice infestations by 84%. The deployment of snorkels and intermittent oxygen depletion detected within them in the spring–summer study did not alter fish welfare parameters. Overall, the results suggest snorkel technology has a place in the toolkit of commercial salmon sea-cage farmers co-managing salmon lice and amoebic gill disease outbreaks − two principal parasite issues facing the industry.

Ecosystem services in the Great Lakes.

A comprehensive inventory of ecosystem services across the entire Great Lakes basin is currently lacking and is needed to make informed management decisions. A greater appreciation and understanding of ecosystem services, including both use and non-use services, may have avoided misguided resource management decisions in the past that have resulted in legacies inherited by future generations. Given the interest in ecosystem services and lack of a coherent approach to addressing this topic in the Great Lakes, a summit was convened involving 28 experts working on various aspects of ecosystem services in the Great Lakes. The invited attendees spanned a variety of social and natural sciences. Given the unique status of the Great Lakes as the world's largest collective repository of surface freshwater, and the numerous stressors threatening this valuable resource, timing was propitious to examine ecosystem services. Several themes and recommendations emerged from the summit. There was general consensus that 1) a comprehensive inventory of ecosystem services throughout the Great Lakes is a desirable goal but would require considerable resources; 2) more spatially and temporally intensive data are needed to overcome our data gaps, but the arrangement of data networks and observatories must be well-coordinated; 3) trade-offs must be considered as part of ecosystem services analyses; and 4) formation of a Great Lakes Institute for Ecosystem Services, to provide a hub for research, meetings, and training is desirable. Several challenges also emerged during the summit, which are discussed in the paper.

On the effect of topography and wind on warm water inflow—An idealized study of the southern Weddell Sea continental shelf system

AbstractAn idealized eddy‐resolving numerical model, with topographic features common to the southern Weddell Sea, is constructed to study mechanisms through which warm deep water enters a wide continental shelf with a trough. The open ocean, represented by a 1700 m deep channel, is connected to a 400 m deep shelf with a continental slope. The shelf is narrow (50 km) in the east but widens to 300 km at the center of the model domain. Over the narrow shelf, the slope front is balanced by wind‐driven Ekman downwelling and counteracting eddy overturning, favoring on‐shelf transport of warm water in summer scenarios when fresher surface water is present. Over the wide shelf, the Ekman downwelling ceases, and the mesoscale eddies relax the front. Inflow of warm water is sensitive to along‐shelf salinity gradients and is most efficient when denser water over the wide shelf favors up‐slope eddy transport along isopycnals of the V‐shaped slope front. Inflow along the eastern side of the trough cannot penetrate the sill region due to potential vorticity constraints, while along the western trough flank, eddy‐induced inflow crosses the sill and reaches the ice front. The warm inflow into the trough is sensitive to the density of the outflowing dense shelf water. For weaker winds, absence of the dense water outflow leads to a reversal of the trough circulation and a strong inflow of warm water, while for stronger winds, baroclinic effects become less important and the inflow is similar to experiments including dense water outflow.

Long-term change and variation of salinity in the western North Pacific subtropical gyre revealed by 50-year long observations along 137\xb0E

The 137°E repeat hydrographic section for 50 winters during 1967–2016 has been analyzed to examine interannual to interdecadal variations and long-term changes of salinity and temperature in the surface and intermediate layers of the western North Pacific, with a particular focus on freshening in the subtropical gyre. Rapid freshening on both isobars and isopycnals began in the mid-1990s and persisted for the last 20 years in the upper main thermocline/halocline in the western subtropical gyre. In addition, significant decadal variability of salinity existed in the subtropical mode water (STMW), as previously reported for the shallower layers. An analysis of the 144°E repeat hydrographic section during 1984–2013 supplemented by Argo profiling float data in 2014 and 2015 revealed that the freshening trend and decadal variability observed at 137°E originated in the winter mixed layer in the Kuroshio Extension (KE) region and was transmitted southwestward to 137°E 1–2 years later in association with the subduction and advection of STMW. The mechanism of these changes and variations in the source region was further investigated. In addition to the surface freshwater flux in the KE region pointed out by previous studies, the decadal KE variability in association with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation likely contributes to the decadal salinity variability through water exchange between the subtropics and the subarctic across the KE. Interdecadal change in both the surface freshwater flux and the KE state, however, failed to explain the rapid freshening for the last 20 years.

Resistivity imaging reveals complex pattern of saltwater intrusion along Monterey coast

Electrical Resistivity Tomography data were acquired along 40km of the Monterey Bay coast in central California. These data resulted in electrical resistivity images to depths of approximately 280m.b.s.l., which were used to understand the distribution of freshwater and saltwater in the subsurface, and factors controlling this distribution. The resulting resistivity sections were interpreted in conjunction with existing data sets, including well logs, seismic reflection data, geologic reports, hydrologic reports, and land use maps from the region. Interpretation of these data shows a complex pattern of saltwater intrusion resulting from geology, pumping, and recharge. The resistivity profiles were used to identify geological flow conduits and barriers such as palaeo-channels and faults, localized saltwater intrusion from individual pumping wells, infiltration zones of surface fresh and brackish water, and regions showing improvements in water quality due to management actions. The use of ERT data for characterizing the subsurface in this region has led to an understanding of the spatial distribution of freshwater and saltwater at a level of detail unattainable with the previously deployed traditional well based salinity mapping and monitoring techniques alone. Significant spatial variability in the extent and geometry of intrusion observed in the acquired data highlights the importance of adopting continuous subsurface characterization methods such as this one.

Physiologic response of six plant species grown in two contrasting soils and irrigated with brackish groundwater and RO concentrate

ABSTRACTWith declining availability of fresh surface water, brackish groundwater is increasingly used for irrigation in the arid and semi-arid southwestern United States. Brackish water can be desalinated by reverse osmosis (RO) but RO results in a highly saline concentrate. Disposal of concentrate is a major problem hindering augmentation of inland desalination in arid areas. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of texture and saline water irrigation on the physiology of six species (Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt., Hordeum vulgare L., Lepidium alyssoides A. Gray, Distichlis stricta (L.) Greene, Panicum virgatum L., and ×Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus [Secale × Triticum]). All species were grown in two contrasting soils and irrigated with the same volume of control water (EC 0.9 dS/m), brackish groundwater (4.1 dS/m), RO concentrate (EC 8.0 dS/m). Several plant physiological measurements were made during the growing season including height, number of stem nodes, average internodal length, number of leaves, leaf length, photosynthetic rates, stomatal conductance rates, transpiration rates, leaf temperatures, stem water potential, and osmotic potential. P. virgatum was the only species that showed significant decrease in plant height and growth with texture and irrigation water salinity. Except for A. canescens and L. alyssoides, number and length of leaves decreased with increasing salinity for all species. No significant differences were observed for photosynthetic, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rates by soil texture or irrigation water salinity. Stem water potential and osmotic potential did show some significant influence by soil texture and irrigation water salinity. Based on the results, RO concentrate can be reused to grow all six species in sand; however, growth of all species showed some limitations in clay. Local reuse of RO concentrate along desert margins with regular soil and environmental quality monitoring can accelerate implementation of inland desalination for sustaining food security.

Anionic H-Bonds in the Chlorosulfolipid Surface Bilayer of O. danica the Strength of a Bacterial Cell Wall

Ochromonas danica, a protozoan algal di-flagellate grows in fresh water bogs at pH 4.3. Despite the absence of a wall, its bilayer membrane protects it from osmotic bursting. Lacking P-lipids, its flagellar membrane is made of single-chain (C20) poly-chlorinated 1,14-disulfates with up to 6 chloros. The C1-sulfate on each chain forms an H-bonded dense anionic surface sheet attracting H3O+ (hydronium ions) to the membrane fresh-water surface. Each H3O+ ion can enter the low dielectric and H-bond to the chloros spaced along the chains, due to chloro-electronegativity. The field created by the anionic hydrophobic-C14-sulfate sheet deep in the bilayer attracts the H3O+ ions toward it. The sulfate-H-sulfate H-bonds, or anionic H-bonds (AHbs) are much stronger than those same bonds at the C1-sulfate sheet, because the C1-sheet faces water, which weakens AHbs. Both sulfate sheets require AHbs to strengthen the bilayer but the C14-sulfate sheet is significantly stronger because of its aprotic environment. (Sigala, et al. JACS (2015)137,5730). Like the single-chain bilayers of the chlorosulfolipids, single-chain oleic acid bilayers use a COOH AHb and also have a second binding domain in the low dielectric, a Δ9 double bond. We use it to compare energy measurements. O. danica's surface bilayer also contains unique PUFAs, dominated by arachidonic, linoleic, and linolenic acids, which further strengthen the bilayer.

Hydrochemistry, multidimensional statistics, and rock mechanics investigations for Sanshandao Gold Mine, China

Prediction of bursting water in a submarine mine (Sanshandao Gold Mine) is very important. The aim of this study was to understand the water sources, mixing ratios, and flow paths in a mining region by using hydrochemistry, principal component analysis (PCA), and rock mechanics. Field observations reveal that there are unusual geothermal gradients and complicated geological conditions. Samples collected from the surface and every depth of the tunnel were analyzed for various ions and isotopes (18O and D). PCA was used to identify the most likely water sources on the foundation of hydrochemistry and a conceptual model. Four kinds of water sources were identified: (1) water mixture of surface freshwater and seawater, (2) brine derived from a deep closed environment, (3) thermal brine derived from the northwestern fault (F3), and (4) Quaternary water. The water sources were variable with time at a sampling site. The combination of water sources in a specific sampling campaign can be decided by the positive scores on principal components (PCs). The PCA results indicate that the first and the fourth kind of water source appear in the deep tunnel with the continual mining activity. Mixing ratio calculations for each sampling campaign show that the first and the fourth kind of water source constitute a small proportion of the total water. The main water sources are the second and third kinds of water. Finally, water flow paths were determined based on the PCA, and rock mechanics is used to explain the change in the water flow paths after excavation. The results show the following: (1) There are several strong water diversion zones that distribute at a certain spacing interval on the large scale and (2) “zonal disintegration” is also found in the tunnel. The fractured zone and the non-fractured zone appear in turn around the tunnel. The rock mass in these two zones represents the tensile and compressive properties, respectively. Thus, volumes of water and permeability of joints and fractures in these two zones are great different.

Assessing the distribution of trace elements in water from Batllava Lake (Kosovo)

The aim of this work was to perform a preliminary multielemental research of water of Batllava artificial Lake (Kosovo), the main source of potable water for the city of Prishtina and surroundings, using ICP-MS method. Besides that, physico-chemical parameters were determined. From obtained data a detailed assessment of water quality was performed. From physico-chemical parameters turbidity (8.0–17 NTU) and chemical consumption of KMnO4 (79.02–110.62 mgdm− 3) significantly exceed in all samples allowed WHO limits for drinking water, what might be a sign of anthropogenic environmental pollution. Boxplot statistical method performed on Na, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb showed that only Zn has one extreme value (125 µgdm− 3) and this is assumed to be of natural origin. According to concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb, which are compared with Croatian legislation for surface freshwaters, water of Batllava Lake is rather clean, as all metals on all stations, except Zn on one station, belong to either I, II or III category. Only Fe has on three locations concentrations slightly higher than recommended WHO standard for drinking water (300.00 µgdm− 3), what could be due to lithology of this part of Kosovo. Even situation with water quality of Batllava Lake is overall rather good, establishing of regular monitoring could be advised, especially with respect to iron, zinc and increased turbidity of water. Also, a slight treatment of Batllava Lake water is advised prior to human use, especially in terms of eliminating of present particles from water and lowering of Fe-content.

Formulation of a new ocean salinity boundary condition and impact on the simulated climate of an oceanic general circulation model

The salinity boundary condition at the ocean surface plays an important role in the stability of long-term integrations of an oceanic general circulation model (OGCM) and in determining its equilibrium solutions. This study presents a new formulation of the salt flux calculation at the ocean surface based on physical processes of salt exchange at the air-sea interface. The formulation improves the commonly used virtual salt flux with constant reference salinity by allowing for spatial correlations between surface freshwater flux and sea-surface salinity while preserving the conservation of global salinity. The new boundary condition is implemented in the latest version of the National Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics/Institute of Atmospheric Physics Climate Ocean Model version 2 (LICOM2.0). The impact of the new boundary condition on the equilibrium simulations of the model is presented. It is shown that the new formulation leads to a stronger Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) that is closer to observational estimates. It also slightly improves poleward heat transport by the oceans in both the Atlantic and the global oceans.

Comparison of three persulfate digestion methods for total phosphorus analysis and estimation of suspended sediments

As a result of impairments to fresh surface water quality due to phosphorus enrichment, substantial research effort has been put forth to quantify agricultural runoff phosphorus as related to on-field practices. While the analysis of runoff dissolved phosphorus is well prescribed and leaves little room for variability in methodology, there are several methods and variations of sample preparation reagents as well as analysis procedures for determining runoff total phosphorus. Due to the variation in methodology for determination of total phosphorus and an additional laboratory procedure required to measure suspended solids, the objectives of the current study are to i. compare the performance of three persulfate digestion methods (Acid Persulfate, USGS, and Alkaline Persulfate) for total phosphorus percent recovery across a wide range of suspended sediments (SS), and ii. evaluate the ability of using Al and/or Fe in digestion solution to predict SS as a surrogate to the traditional gravimetric method. Percent recovery of total phosphorus was determined using suspensions prepared from soils collected from 21 agricultural fields in Ohio. The Acid Persulfate method was most effective, with an average total phosphorus percent recovery of 96.6%. The second most effective method was the USGS with an average total phosphorus recovery of 76.1%. However, the Alkaline Persulfate method performed poorly with an average 24.5% total phosphorus recovery. As a result application of Alkaline Persulfate digestion to edge of field monitoring may drastically underestimated runoff total phosphorus. In addition to excellent recovery of total phosphorus, the Acid Persulfate method combined with analysis of Al and Fe by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry provides a robust estimate of total SS. Due to the large quantity of samples that can result from water quality monitoring, an indirect measure of total SS could be very valuable when time and budget constraints limit the number of procedures that can be run on a single water sample.

Microbial Community Structure and Interannual Change in the Last Epishelf Lake Ecosystem in the North Polar Region

Climate warming is proceeding rapidly in the polar regions, posing a threat to ice-dependent ecosystems. Among the most vulnerable are microbial-dominated epishelf lakes, in which surface ice-damming of an embayment causes a freshwater layer to overlie the sea, creating an interface between distinct habitats. We characterized the physicochemical and biotic environment of Milne Fiord epishelf lake (82° N, Canada) in three successive summers (2010–2012), and on one date of profiling (5 July 2011) we collected samples for high through-put amplicon sequencing of variable regions of small subunit rRNA to characterize the microbial community (Eukarya, Bacteria and Archaea). Potentially active water column communities were investigated using reverse-transcribed rRNA, and phytoplankton were further characterized by accessory pigment analysis. Cluster analysis of pigment data showed a demarcation between freshwater and marine communities, which was also evident in the sequence data. The halocline community of Eukarya was more similar to the deeper marine sample than to the freshwater surface community, while the Archaea and Bacteria communities at this interface clustered more with surface communities. In 2012, conductivity-depth profiles indicated shallowing of the freshwater layer and mixing across the halocline, accompanied by lower picocyanobacteria and higher picoeukaryote concentrations. Picocyanobacteria cells were more evenly distributed throughout the water column in 2012, implying partial deep mixing. Several mixotrophic taxa of Eukarya were more abundant in the freshwater layer, where low nutrient concentrations may favor this lifestyle. Unusual features of Milne Fiord microbial communities included benthic taxa not previously reported in marine water columns (notably, the archaeon Halobacteriales), and dominance by taxa that are typically present in sparse concentrations elsewhere; for example, the Chlorophyte group Radicarteria and the betaproteobacterium Rhodoferax. Milne Fiord epishelf lake is the last known lake of this kind remaining in the Arctic, and the fate of this distinct microbial ecosystem may ultimately depend on the stability of the Milne Fiord ice shelf, which has experienced a negative mass balance over the past half century.

Isolation and Characterization of Microcystin Degrading Bacteria from Holy Ponds in India

Microcystins (MCs) are toxic cyclic heptapeptides produced by few toxic cyanobacteria and generally form blooms in eutrophic surface fresh water bodies. They cause acute to chronic poisoning and other health related problems mainly by irreversible inhibition of protein phosphatases (PP1 and PP2A) and increased formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Due to limitation of non-biological methods of water treatments the exploration of MCs degrading bacteria is emerging at a quite pace to address, through bioremediation, the problems posed by MCs in water and water-bodies. Report and study of MCs biodegrading bacteria from India were lacking. However it was evident, from our previous study, that microcystin degradation can be achieved by indigenous microcystin degrading bacterial population in its natural place where microcystin producing blooms occur. This study has presented isolation and characterization of indigenous microcystin degrading bacteria from holy ponds in Utter Pradesh of India. Overall 20 bacterial isolates were isolated from Microcystis infested different ponds. Out of these 13 isolates were mlrA positive by PCR and were found to be distinct isolates by amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA). However, ARDRA analysis revealed overall four bacterial groups. On the basis of 16S-rRNA gene sequence the Gram-positive-rod isolate PM1 was identified, with 99% identity, as Bacillus licheniformis which was shown earlier to cluster with microcystin degrading bacterium B. subtilis. Thus the present study revealed, for the first time, probable microcystin degrading bacteria in water-bodies from India. The potential and the metabolic pathway of PM1 and other mlrA positive isolates need to be further studied and validated to confirm their application in microcystin bioremediation. Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol, Vol 4(4): 436-447

Water Collection from Air Humidity in Bahrain

The Kingdom of Bahrain falls geographically in one of the driest regions in the world. Conventional fresh surface water bodies, such as rivers and lakes, are nonexistent and for water consumption, Bahrain prominently relies on the desalination of sea water. This paper presents an ongoing project that is being pursued by a group of student and their advising professors to investigate the viability of extracting water from air humidity. Dehumidifiers have been utilized as water extraction devices. Those devices have been distributed on six areas that were selected based on a rigorous geospatial modeling of historical meteorological data. The areas fall in residential and industrial neighborhoods that are located in the main island and the island of Muharraq. Water samples have been collected three times every week since May of 2016 and the collection process will continue until May of 2017. The collected water samples have been analyzed against numerous variables individually and in combinations including: amount of water collected per hour versus geographical location, amount of water collected per hour versus meteorological factors, suitability of collected water for potable human consumption, detection of air pollution in the areas of collection and the economy of this method of water collection in comparison to other nonconventional methods. An overview of the completed analysis results is presented in this paper.

Environmental Concerns for Water Consumption from Polluted Water Bodies in Watershed Area of Sindh Province

In the developing countries like Pakistan, the major source of water for drinking, agriculture and industries is the surface and groundwater. The main users of water are three sectors (e.g., domestic, agriculture and industries) that have not found proper disposal networks for untreated wastewater. The indiscriminate effluents from these areas are being discharged into water bodies and thereby, water becomes unfit for drinking and reuse. Furthermore, this contamination becomes detrimental to environment and creates serious health issues. The use of chemical and pesticides for crops is common practice and run-off from irrigated-agriculture finds its way into surface water bodies and seeps into ground water which also drains into water bodies, as resulting in water pollution, environmental concerns and adverse health problems. This paper presents adverse impact of the industrial, agricultural and raw sewage effluents disposal into Left Bank Outfall Drainage (LBOD) system in Sindh Province which blights the surface water bodies and groundwater quality. In Sindh province, 78% of ground water quality is brackish and or saline which is not fit for drinking and domestic use. However, the people are withdrawing it for drinking where facility of fresh surface water is not available and this phenomenon becomes major cause of diseases (i.e., hyper tension/ blood pressure, dysentery, cholera, typhoid, hepatitis etc.). The analyzed results of collected samples from drains and groundwater exhibit higher level of polluted water which is unfit for drinking and biotic life.