Frequency Of Stereotypies Research Articles

Stereotypic behavior in Asiatic black and Malayan sun bears

AbstractThe stereotypies of individually caged Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and Malayan sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) were studied in detail. Stereotypies were performed by 27 of the 29 subjects, were primarily locomotory in form (e.g., pacing), and occupied on average 18% (standard error of the mean (SEM)=2.5) of daylight hours. Stereotypy levels during the night were almost negligible and were highly correlated with daytime levels. Total stereotypies peaked prior to food arrival, although oral stereotypies were most frequent after feeding. In general, stereotypies were performed in locations from which food arrival could be viewed, although Asiatic black bears were equally likely to exhibit stereotypy near a neighboring bear. Across individuals, stereotypy frequency was inversely correlated with inactivity and increased with age. Older bears also showed less normal activity and a reduced diversity of normal behavior. Stereotypy levels were unrelated to levels of “compulsive” behavior (e.g., hair plucking) or repetitive self‐sucking–a potential deprivation stereotypy. More frequent stereotypies were performed more invariantly (i.e., were more predictable from one repetition to the next) and in more diverse contexts, namely 1) outside the pre‐feeding period, and 2) during the night. Contrary to observations reported elsewhere, higher frequencies of stereotypy were not associated with reduced behavioral diversity, or with a more elaborate repertoire of stereotypy forms and sequences. Although the two species did not differ in overall frequency, the stereotypies of sun bears appeared to be more food‐motivated than those of Asiatic black bears: the sun bears displayed a higher frequency and diversity of oral stereotypies, and higher levels of pre‐feeding stereotypy, and performed significantly more of their total stereotypies in locations from which they could view food arrival. This study demonstrates how analyzing stereotypies in detail can help identify the motivations that underlie these behaviors, and potentially reveal their degree of establishment–both of which are important factors in stereotypy treatment. Zoo Biol 23:409–430, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

A survey of the prevalence of stereotypy, self-injury and aggression in children and young adults with Cri du Chat syndrome.

The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence and frequency of stereotypy, self-injurious behaviour (SIB), and aggression in children and adults with Cri du Chat syndrome (CCS), and to investigate the relationship between SIB, aggressive behaviour and stereotypy in these individuals. Sixty-six families of children and adults diagnosed with CCS completed the Behaviour Problems Inventory. Additional information relating to gender, chronological age, type of school/post-school occupation and medication was also included in the survey. Stereotyped behaviour was reported for 82% of subjects, more than half the sample displaying it on a daily basis. The occurrence percentage of 15 topographies of SIB suggested that head banging, hitting the head against body parts, self-biting and rumination are the most frequently occurring behaviours in CCS. Aggressive behaviour was reported for 88%, with a statistically significant negative correlation between age and the number of aggressive behaviours reported. The present findings suggest that specific types of stereotypy and SIB are observed frequently in CCS.

Stereotypies in heifers are affected by feeding regime

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of feed giving long or short duration of feeding, including rumination, on oral stereotypy levels in cattle. Forty-eight tethered heifers of the Swedish Red and White Breed, with an average age of 16 months, were subjected to the same treatment. During the first 2 weeks of the experiment (Period 1), they were fed a diet with free access to long straw, silage and concentrate (AL) with which they were also fed before the onset of the study. After a week of gradual adaptation they were changed to a diet containing only silage and concentrate (R) but with the same energy content as AL. After 3 weeks on the R diet (Period 2), they were returned to the AL diet for the remaining 2 weeks (Period 3) of the experimental period. The number of animals that performed stereotypies differed significantly ( P < 0.001) between the three periods, with 16 heifers in Period 1, 44 heifers in Period 2, and 25 heifers in Period 3. The frequency of recordings of stereotypies differed significantly between periods ( P < 0.001), with considerable increases in Period 2. This pattern was general although the levels of the stereotypy frequency varied between animals. The time budgets for the animals were highly affected by treatment since all behavioural categories showed significant variations over time, with increases in, for example, standing, social behaviours, licking/biting and decreases in eating behaviour, rumination and total lying time in response to restricted feeding. The results from this experiment clearly show that restrictive allowances of roughage with its effects on behavioural time budgets, especially on feeding behaviours, considerably increase the development and frequency of oral stereotypies in cattle.

Extrapyramidal effects of methanandamide, an analog of anandamide, the endogenous CB 1, receptor ligand

Recent evidence has demonstrated that arachidonylethanolamide (“anandamide”, AEA), the major endogenous ligand of CB, receptors, inhibits motor behavior in rats, as does (−) Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the prototypical tricyclic cannabinoid derived from Cannabis sativa preparations. However, its effects were of shorter duration, as compared to THC, likely due to its rapid breakdown by an amidase activity. The present work has been designed to examine the motor effects of AM356 (R-methanandamide), an analog of AEA that possesses higher metabolic stability to amidase hydrolysis. We have studied the dose-response and time-course effects of R-methanandamide, i.p. administered, on ambulatory activity, frequency of stereotypy and time spent in inactivity measured in an open-field test. Results were as follows. R-Methanandamide, as THC and AEA, inhibited motor behavior. Thus, it decreased ambulation and stereotypy and increased the time spent in inactivity, usually in a dose-related manner, 10 min after administration. However, the motor deficit caused by the highest dose of R-methanandamide was usually more pronounced than that caused by a similar dose of AEA. These inhibitory effects persisted 30 min after the administration of R-methanandamide, as occurred with AEA and THC. Interestingly, at 60 min after administration, the effects of AEA disappeared, likely because of its breakdown to arachidonic acid and ethanolamine, but this did not occur with R-methanandamide whose effects persisted even until 180 min after treatment as occurred with THC. In summary, R-methanandamide inhibits motor behavior in a manner (its effects were persistent) that resembles the effects of THC rather than the effects of AEA (its effects were of rapid onset but shorter duration). This fact supports the use of R-methanandamide as a valuable tool for studying the physiological roles of the anandamidergic system.

Stereotypies and cortisol secretion in heifers subjected to tethering

The aims of this study were to assess the effect of tethering on environmentally induced stereotypies and urine cortisol concentration in Swedish Red and White heifers, and to analyse a possible relationship between the performance of stereotypies and cortisol concentration. Three groups of heifers ( N=14) with oral stereotypies, mainly consisting of tongue-rolling, were studied during three consecutive autumns. Recordings of the duration and frequency of stereotypies were made from the second and third day after the heifers had been transferred from pasture and tethered indoors, and for 7 weeks thereafter. The four heifers from the previous year were also subjected to urine collection to determine total 24-h concentration of cortisol during Weeks 1–8 post-tethering. An adrenalcorticoid response test was conducted after 8 weeks of tethering. Exogenous adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) was administered to heifers with, and without, stereotypies. All 14 heifers from the three cohorts showed the same pattern concerning time allocated to stereotypies during the 8 weeks post-tethering. From a zero-level in pasture, they increased the time spent performing stereotypies until Week 4, whereafter the stereotypy level decreased. The heifers all had similar patterns of cortisol concentrations during the observation period. The cortisol concentration was high during the first week after tethering (on average, 84.25 nmol l −1), but from the second week onwards the concentration was decreased. The ACTH test showed no difference in adrenal status between tethered heifers with, or without, stereotypies. There was no indication that individual variation in cortisol level was associated with the performance of stereotypies. This study shows that tethering after a grazing period leads to increased levels of stereotypies and high urine levels of cortisol.

Stereotyped behaviour, social interactions and suckling pattern of pigs housed in groups or in single crates

The frequency of stereotypies, the nature of social interactions and whether sows or piglets initiate and terminate successful sucklings were compared. Sows on a commercial farm were housed in either crates or pens and studied for a year. Our observations indicated that sows in crates developed significantly more stereotypies (14.9 per sow-hour) than sows in pens (0.3 per sow-hour). Vacuum chewing was the most prevalent stereotypy observed (69%). Seventy-seven percent of the stereotypies were recorded before feedings. Frequency scanning resulted in fewer stereotypies per sow-hour than direct continuous sampling, with the exception of dog-sitting position. This finding suggests that frequency scanning is a superior method for sampling stereotyped behaviour than direct continuous sampling. Sows in crates had significantly more aggressive interactions (0.8 per sow-hour) than sows in pens (0.3 per sow-hour). Housing design did not influence the proportion of successful sucklings. Sows initiated significantly more often (77%) successful sucklings than piglets (23%). Our observations confirm that providing straw and space for exercise reduced the frequency of stereotypies (14.9 per sow-hour), but did not completely suppress them (0.3 per sow-hour). The results obtained confirmed previous reports indicating that housing design influences the frequency of stereotypies and the nature of social interactions between sows.

A note on relations between oral stereotypies in dairy cows and milk production, health and age

The relationships of oral stereotypies to milk production and health were investigated in 95 dairy cows that had completed between one and five lactations. Forty cows in the herd performed stereotypies, mainly tongue-rolling and to a lesser extent bar-biting. A significant positive relation was found between the dependent variable milk production and stereotypies (P &lt; 0·05) according to a GLM-model also containing lactation group (age; P &lt; 0·01), sire (breeding value for milk yield; P &lt; 0·01), and health I ailments (P &gt; 0·05). There was no correlation between different phases in lactation and the frequency of stereotypies (Spearman correlation coefficient = 0·124; no. = 0·40; P &gt; 0·05).

Stress and stereotypies in farmed mink

Stereotyped and normal behaviours were quantified from April to June 1989 among 187 adult male and female ranch mink. It was shown that mink devote no more than 3% of the day to stereotyped behaviour. The frequency of stereotypies is markedly increased leading up to feeding time in the middle of the day and declines to very low levels in the afternoon. Environmental disturbances such as human proximity and transport and unloading at other farm sections, have strong inhibitory effects on the performance of stereotypies. The relation between stereotypies and stress is discussed, and it is suggested that chronic intermittent stress (e.g. stress induced by daily fresh food deprivation), is a prerequisite for the occurrence of stereotypies, but that additional conditions involving low level external stimulation are important. A total of 147 adult females were divided into two groups: one exhibiting a low level of stereotypy ( n = 24 ) and one exhibiting a high level of stereotypy (n = 24). These two groups were studied from the weaning of pups in June 1989 until mating in March 1990. Normal behavioural activity as well as specified stereotypies were compared and related to stressful experiences. Again, it appeared that acute stress reduces the occurrence of stereotypies. It was found, however, that stereotypies are differentially affected by stress. Stereotypies in caged mink G.J. Mason Sub-department of Animal Behaviour, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 8AA, UK ABSTRACT Stereotypy was studied in 105 adult mink on a commercial farm. Stereotypy largely involved locomotor movements such as pacing. Individuals differed in the amount performed, in the exact movements involved, and in the complexity and variability of behavioural sequences. All 102 stereotypic individuals showed stereotypy before the daily delivery of food. Pre-feeding, there were significant negative correlations between stereotypy and inactivity ( r= -0 .839 , P<0.001 ), and stereotypy and normal activity (r--0 .449 , P < 0.001 ). Immediately before food delivery, stereotypies were particularly rapid, and were usually performed in the part of the cage nearest to the approaching feeding machine. This would suggest that the stereotypy is related to appetitive behaviour. However, it is not simply the captive equivalent of hunting; mink also performed stereotypy in response to a number ofStereotypy was studied in 105 adult mink on a commercial farm. Stereotypy largely involved locomotor movements such as pacing. Individuals differed in the amount performed, in the exact movements involved, and in the complexity and variability of behavioural sequences. All 102 stereotypic individuals showed stereotypy before the daily delivery of food. Pre-feeding, there were significant negative correlations between stereotypy and inactivity ( r= -0 .839 , P<0.001 ), and stereotypy and normal activity (r--0 .449 , P < 0.001 ). Immediately before food delivery, stereotypies were particularly rapid, and were usually performed in the part of the cage nearest to the approaching feeding machine. This would suggest that the stereotypy is related to appetitive behaviour. However, it is not simply the captive equivalent of hunting; mink also performed stereotypy in response to a number of

Changes in duration and frequency of stereotypies and their adjoining behaviours in heifers, before, during and after the grazing period

Eight tied-up heifers with oral stereotypies were studied continuously during 72 h when all stereotypies and their immediately adjoining behaviours were recorded according to duration and frequency. The procedure was repeated during three seasons: before the grazing period when the heifers were tied up in stalls, on pasture and after the grazing period when the heifers were tied up again. The heifers showed a significant ( P < 0.001) increase in time spent on stereotypies, 25% of total time, after the grazing season compared with 11% of total time before the grazing season. No stereotypies at all were observed on pasture. Feed-searching behaviours occurred significantly ( P < 0.05) more frequently adjoining stereotypies than any other behaviour. This group of behaviours was also more frequent before than after a stereotypy ( P < 0.05), while grooming, sniffing of equipment not connected with feeding, looking and social contacts (autumn) were more frequent after a stereotypy than before one. The results support the hypothesis that stereotypies, facilitated by frustrated feeding, provide some feedback on the motivational state of hunger.

The Effects of Fluorescent and Incandescent Lighting on the Repetitive Behaviours of Autistic and Intellectually Handicapped Children

Repetitive behaviours of five autistic and five intellectually handicapped children were observed under both fluorescent and incandescent lighting conditions. The findings of this study support the hypothesis that autistic children engage in a significantly greater frequency of stereotypies under fluorescent as compared to incandescent lighting, and that there is no significant difference in the frequency of stereotypic behaviours among intellectually handicapped children when exposed to the different lighting conditions. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of the lighting requirements of therapeutic settings and the differential diagnosis of childhood autism.

Kicking, rocking, and waving: Contextual analysis of rhythmical stereotypies in normal human infants

I analysed the triggering contexts of over 14 000 bouts of rhythmical stereotypies of the legs, arms, and whole torso observed in 20 normal infants during their first year. Infant stereotypies were elicited by a wide variety of contexts including non-alert states, interactions with the caregiver and other persons, feeding situations, object interest, and kinaesthetic changes. The frequency of stereotypy in all contexts was a function of age. Non-alert states and interactions with the caregiver were disproportionately associated with leg and torso stereotypies. The relationship between these human stereotypies and the function and control of stereotyped behaviour in other species is discussed.

Effects of Diet and Behavior Therapy on Social and Motor Behavior of Retarded Phenylketonuric Adults: An Experimental Analysis

The effects of a low phenylalanine diet on six retarded phenylketonuric adults were assessed. An ABA individual-subject design was used in experiment I to assess the effects of a low phenylalanine diet on social and motor behavior. Following a baseline during which the subjects ingested a normal phenylalanine diet (phase A), a low phenylalanine diet (phase B) was administered in a double blind fashion. Finally, the baseline condition (phase A) was reinstated (normal diet). The low phenylalanine diet resulted in few significant behavioral changes for those subjects with which proper methodologic controls were employed. However, for two of six subjects motor behavior, including stereotypy and tremor, seem to have ameliorated. In experiment II, applied behavior analysis techniques, including differential reinforcement of other behavior and time out, were combined to radically reduce the frequency of stereotypy and self-abuse exhibited by one of the six subjects of experiment I.

Causal factors of stereotypies in caged birds

Two repetitive avian stereotypies, spot-picking and route-tracing, are examined with respect to the factors which cause the onset of these behaviours. Stereotypies were counted in 5-min observation periods, excluding time spent singing, feeding, drinking, or preening. Twelve of these 5-min periods made up an experimental test series. Several experiments were conducted to determine the effects of various environmental and developmental conditions on the frequency of stereotypies. Route-tracing was reduced in a very large aviary cage and when a swinging-perch arrangement was added to a smaller cage. Spot-picking was reduced when canaries were required to ‘work for food’. Wild-caught birds generally exhibited a greater number of route-traces and few if any spot-picks when compared to laboratory-reared birds, although the type of laboratory rearing (isolated, grouped, mother-reared, hand-reared) seemed to have little effect. It is therefore suggested that route-tracing is associated with the physical restrictions imposed on movement by the cage, while spot-picking results from some deficiency associated with laboratory conditions.