Frequency Of Grooming Research Articles

Prevalence of Pubic Hair Grooming–Related Injuries and Identification of High-Risk Individuals in the United States

Pubic hair grooming is a common practice that can lead to injury and morbidity. To identify demographic and behavioral risk factors associated with pubic hair grooming-related injuries to characterize individuals with high risk of injury and develop recommendations for safe grooming practices. This cross-sectional study conducted a national survey of noninstitutionalized US adults (aged 18-65 years). The web-based survey was conducted through a probability-based web panel designed to be representative of the US population. Data were collected in January 2014 and analyzed from August 1, 2016, through February 1, 2017. Grooming-related injury history (yes or no), high-frequency injuries (>5 lifetime injuries), and injury requiring medical attention. Among the 7570 participants who completed the survey (4198 men [55.5%] and 3372 women [44.5%]; mean (SD) age, 41.9 [18.9] years), 5674 of 7456 (76.1%) reported a history of grooming (66.5% of men and 85.3% of women [weighted percentages]). Grooming-related injury was reported by 1430 groomers (weighted prevalence, 25.6%), with more women sustaining an injury than men (868 [27.1%] vs 562 [23.7%]; P = .01). Laceration was the most common injury sustained (818 [61.2%]), followed by burn (307 [23.0%]) and rashes (163 [12.2%]). Common areas for grooming-related injury for men were the scrotum (378 [67.2%]), penis (196 [34.8%]), and pubis (162 [28.9%]); for women, the pubis (445 [51.3%]), inner thigh (340 [44.9%]), vagina (369 [42.5%]), and perineum (115 [13.2%]). After adjustment for age, duration of grooming, hairiness, instrument used, and grooming frequency, men who removed all their pubic hair 11 times or more during their lifespan had an increased risk for grooming injury (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.97; 95% CI, 1.28-3.01; P = .002) and were prone to repeated high-frequency injuries (AOR, 3.89; 95% CI, 2.01-7.52; P < .001) compared with groomers who did not remove all their pubic hair. Women who removed all their pubic hair 11 times or more had increased odds of injury (AOR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.53-3.19; P < .001) and high-frequency injuries (AOR, 2.98; 95% CI, 1.78-5.01; P < .001) compared with groomers who do not remove all their pubic hair. In women, waxing decreased the odds of high-frequency injuries (AOR, 0.11; 95% CI, 0.03-0.43; P = .001) compared with nonelectric blades. In total, 79 injuries among 5674 groomers (1.4%) required medical attention. Grooming frequency and degree of grooming (ie, removing all pubic hair) are independent risk factors for injury. The present data may help identify injury-prone groomers and lead to safer grooming practices.

Effects of Beta-Adrenergic Blockade on Diabetes-Induced Neurobehavioral Alterations in Mice

Neurobehavioral activities were estimated in three groups of male albino mice using the open field, elevated plus maze, light/dark board, and hole-board tests. The control group included intact animals, while alloxan-induced diabetes was evoked in the other two groups (single i.p. injection of 120 mg/kg alloxan). In the third group, a nonspecific beta-adrenoreceptor antagonist, propranolol, was i.p. injected (40 mg/kg) before the induction of diabetes. In diabetic mice, all neurobehavioral indices tested in the four above-mentioned tests were significantly (P< 0.05) smaller than those in the control group. The frequencies of rearings and grooming episodes in the open field, number of entries into the open arms and time spent in these arms in the elevated plus maze test, and number of head dips in the hole-board test demonstrated the most intense drops (more than twofold). Pretreatment with propranolol provided significant (P < 0.05) normalization of all neurobehavioral indices in diabetic mice; such normalization with respect to the locomotion intensity, frequency of grooming, time spent in the open arms, and both indices in the light/dark board was nearly complete. Thus, diabetes in the animal model used is accompanied by the development of the state of abnormally high anxiety. The activity of the betaadrenergic system is noticeably involved in the formation of this state; pharmacological blocking of beta-adrenoreceptors provides significant anxiolytic effects.

QTL and systems genetics analysis of mouse grooming and behavioral responses to novelty in an open field.

The open field is a classic test used to assess exploratory behavior, anxiety and locomotor activity in rodents. Here, we mapped quantitative trait loci (QTLs) underlying behaviors displayed in an open field, using a panel of 53 BXD recombinant inbred mouse strains with deep replication (10 per strain and sex). The use of these strains permits the integration and comparison of data obtained in different laboratories, and also offers the possibility to study trait covariance by exploiting powerful bioinformatics tools and resources. We quantified behavioral traits during 20-min test sessions including (1) percent time spent and distance traveled near the wall (thigmotaxis), (2) leaning against the wall, (3) rearing, (4) jumping, (5) grooming duration, (6) grooming frequency, (7) locomotion and (8) defecation. All traits exhibit moderate heritability making them amenable to genetic analysis. We identified a significant QTL on chromosome M.m. 4 at approximately 104 Mb that modulates grooming duration in both males and females (likelihood ratio statistic values of approximately 18, explaining 25% and 14% of the variance, respectively) and a suggestive QTL modulating locomotion that maps to the same locus. Bioinformatic analysis indicates Disabled 1 (Dab1, a key protein in the reelin signaling pathway) as a particularly strong candidate gene modulating these behaviors. We also found 2 highly suggestive QTLs for a sex by strain interaction for grooming duration on chromosomes 13 and 17. In addition, we identified a pairwise epistatic interaction between loci on chromosomes 12 at 36-37 Mb and 14 at 34-36 Mb that influences rearing frequency in males.

Acute Lipopolysaccharide Switches the Selection of Maternal Behavior to Predatory Behavior in Female Rats

Objectives: A common problem during the postpartum period and during lactation is being affected by infection due to Gram-negative bacteria. In this situation, a sick mother needs to choose between caring for her pups or the need for survival. This study analyzed the effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sickness behavior on selection between maternal behavior (MB) and predatory behavior (PB) in lactating rats. To assess the LPS-induced sickness behavior, the plasma tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels were measured. Methods: Lactating rats received 100 µg/kg LPS or saline solution on day 5 or 6 of lactation, 2 h before testing. Five pups and 5 cockroaches were introduced to the experimental cage at the same time and maternal and PB were observed for 30 min. The MB was measured by the pup contact, grouping, grooming, and kyphosis and the PB by contacting, eating, and foraging insects. General maternal activity was also observed, including exploration, self-grooming, and immobility. Immediately after the observations, blood was collected to measure the plasma TNF-α levels. Results: LPS administration reduced the time and frequency of pup contact, grouping, grooming, and kyphosis, with an increase in the latency to first pup contact and grouping. With regard to PB, the time of foraging and eating insects increased, and the latencies to first insect contact, eating insects, and foraging decreased. With regard to general maternal activity, immobility time and TNF-α levels increased in the LPS-treated group. Conclusions: LPS exposure switched MB to PB, prioritizing maternal survival. Thus, in more favorable situations, these rats may have new offspring and therefore her species would survive for long.

Modifications of depression-like behavior in the adult ovariectomized female rats treated with different doses of cholecalciferol

The aim of the preclinical study was to examine the effects of chronic the effects of chronic cholecalciferol administration (1.0, 2.5 or 5.0 mg/kg/day, s.c., once daily, for 14 days) on depression-like behavior following ovariectomy in rats. Cholecalciferol was administered to the ovariectomized (OVX) rats and OVX rats treated with 17β-estradiol (17β-E2, 0.5 μg/rat, s.c., once daily, for 14 days). Depression-like behavior was assessed in the forced swimming test (FST) and the spontaneous locomotor activity was assessed using the open field test (OFT). Treatment with cholecalciferol in high dose (5.0 mg/kg/day, s.c.) significantly decreased immobility time of OVX rats in the FST. Co-administration of cholecalciferol in high dose with 17β-E2 exerted a markedly synergistic antidepressant-like effect in the OVX rats on the same model of depression-like behavior testing. Cholecalciferol in high dose administered alone or together with 17β-E2 significantly enhanced frequency of grooming of the OVX rats in the OFT. Moreover, cholecalciferol in high dose administered alone or together with 17β-E2 significantly decreased the elevated corticosterone levels in the blood serum of OVX rats following the FST. These results indicate that cholecalciferol in high dose has a marked antidepressant-like effect in the adult female rats with low levels of estrogen. The data also indicate that the combination of cholecalciferol in high dose and 17β-E2 is more effective than 17β-E2 alone in OVX rats inducing a more profound antidepressant-like effect in the FST.Russian Science Foundation (RSF) funded the reported study accordingly to the research project № 16-15-10053.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Rapamycin modulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor and B-cell lymphoma 2 to mitigate autism spectrum disorder in rats.

The number of children suffered from autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is increasing dramatically. However, the etiology of ASD is not well known. This study employed mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor rapamycin to explore its effect on ASD and provided new therapeutic strategies for ASD. ASD rat model was constructed and valproic acid (VPA) was injected intraperitoneally into rats on pregnancy day 12.5. Offspring from VPA group were divided into ASD group and ASD + rapamycin (ASD + RAPA) group. Compared with normal group, the frequency and duration of social behavior and straight times of ASD group were shortened, but the grooming times were extended. Meanwhile, in ASD group, the average escape latency and the frequency of crossing plates were decreased, the apoptotic index (AI) detected by TUNEL assay was increased, and the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) analyzed was decreased with great difference compared with normal group (P<0.01). However, rapamycin treatment in ASD rats mitigated the ASD-like social behavior, such as the frequencies of straight and grooming. Furthermore, rapamycin shortened the average escape latency, but increased the frequency of crossing plates of ASD rats. In hippocampus, rapamycin decreased the AI, but increased the levels of BDNF and Bcl-2 (P<0.01) of ASD rats. These findings revealed that rapamycin significantly mitigated the social behavior by enhancing the expression of BDNF and Bcl-2 to suppress the hippocampus apoptosis in VPA-induced ASD rats.

Comparison of voluntary and forced exercise effects on motor behavior in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesion rat model of Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders. This study compared the effects of two types of exercises on motor dysfunction in characterizing adult male Wistar rats with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions placed in the median forebrain bundle. Sixty adult male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to six groups: the control intact and Parkinson group (no exercise), the forced group (sham, PD), the voluntary group (sham, PD). The effects of 4 weeks of forced treadmill running and voluntary wheel running on motor behavior were investigated in the open field, Rotarod and hanging tests. The outcomes showed that although the length moved by the voluntary exercise group was more than that in the forced exercise, the forced exercise resulted in better performance in Rotarod (P = 0.01), whereas voluntary exercise was found to increase rearing behavior (P = 0.01). Both exercise groups were the same in the open field (p > 0.05), grooming frequency (P = 0.12), and hanging test (P = 0.181). We found that wheel running and treadmill running exercise protocols improved the motor impairments in the 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of Parkinson’s disease; therefore, our result suggests that both exercise methods could be beneficial for PD patients to reduce their motor dysfunction.

Different effects of vitamin D hormone treatment on depression-like behavior in the adult ovariectomized female rats.

Vitamine D (VD) has important functions in the human brain and may play a role in affective-related disorders. VD receptors are expressed in multiple brain regions associated with depressive disorders. The aim of the preclinical study was to examine the effects of chronic cholecalciferol administration (1.0, 2.5 or 5.0mg/kg/day,s.c., once daily, for 14days) on the depression-like behavior and corticosterone levels in the blood samples following ovariectomy in female rats. Cholecalciferol was administered to the ovariectomized (OVX) rats and OVX rats treated with 17β-estradiol (17β-E2, 0.5μg/rat,s.c., once daily, for 14days). Depression-like behavior and spontaneous locomotor activity were assessed in the forced swimming test (FST) and the open field test (OFT), respectively. The corticosterone levels in the blood serum before and after FST were measured in all experimental groups. Treatment with cholecalciferol in high dose (5.0mg/kg/day,s.c.) significantly decreased the immobility time of OVX rats in the FST. Co-administration of cholecalciferol in high dose with 17β-E2 exerted a markedly synergistic antidepressant-like effect in the OVX rats on the same model of depression-like behavior testing. Cholecalciferol in high dose (5.0mg/kg/day,s.c.) administered alone or together with 17β-E2 significantly enhanced frequency of grooming for the OVX rats in the OFT. Moreover, cholecalciferol in high dose administered alone or together with 17β-E2 significantly decreased the elevated corticosterone levels in the blood serum of OVX rats following the FST. These results indicate that Cholecalciferol in high dose has a marked antidepressant-like effect in the adult female rats with low levels of estrogen.

Panel based assessment of snow management operations in French ski resorts

The vulnerability of the ski industry to snow and meteorological conditions accounting for snow management has been addressed regarding past conditions or under climate change scenario in most of the major destinations for skiing activities including the U.S.A and Austria, although not in the French Alps yet. Such investigations require quantitative data on snow management practices in ski resorts. So far the only information available in France was aggregated at the national level and outdated. The present study aims to provide detailed information of relevance for impact studies accounting for snow management including snowmaking and grooming facilities (ratio of equipped ski slopes, snowguns types, water storage capacity) and practices (grooming frequency, snowguns positioning, required snow depth regarding the date) in French ski resorts with respect to their characteristics. We collected information from 55 French ski resorts through a survey we set up in Autumn 2014, covering a large range of ski resorts (geographical situation, size, altitude), consistently with the dispersion of the population of French ski resorts. The participant ski resorts represent about 50% of the French ski resorts total ski lifts infrastructures. This survey confirms that the snow conditions are a major priority for ski resorts operators to provide comfortable skiing conditions, to ski back down to the village or even to connect with neighbouring resorts. The required minimum snow depth is shared by most resorts, decreasing from 60cm in February to 40cm in April with a minimum 40cm to maintain regardless the date. Snowmaking also appears as the major method to mitigate the dependency to natural snow conditions. Most resorts are equipped in 2015 with very similar facilities (about 35% of ski slopes equipped) even though they indicate contrasted prospects. The survey does not outline significant differences in terms of snow management practices with respect to the size or the location of the ski resorts. Using these results together with additional information suggests that the smaller, low to medium altitude resorts show lower adaptive capacity than larger, higher altitude resorts to face the natural variability and projected changes of the climate consistently with international data. This raises the interest for further investigations for the profiling of ski resorts regarding their geographical situation, management mode or target market, with probably significant influences on their willingness to develop snowmaking facilities. Management implicationsThe present study highlights several points of interest for ski resorts stakeholders.•Resorts operators share most priorities regarding snow management to ensure the spatial continuity of ski slopes (ski lifts operation) under the worst meteorological conditions and to promote the ski resort by differentiating with direct competitors. A particularly strong attention is paid to the French academic holidays.•The required minimum snow depth depends more on the period of the season than on the size of the resort and triggers the production of machine made snow (35% of ski slopes covered for which the facilities maximum altitude is significantly correlated to the average altitude of resorts ski lifts, slope 1.1).•The location of a ski resort may have a significant impact on its adaptive capacity with contrasted vulnerabilities to natural snow conditions (not only due to elevation differences) and potentially further implications (relationships with host communities, financial robustness), outlining strong inequalities between ski resorts to face the current variability and projected changes of the climate.•The access to the water volumes to produce machine made snow is already inequal between resorts, most of them relying on water reservoirs which average capacity is equivalent to a 38–48cm snow depth on equipped ski slopes. Any evolution of the need for additional snowmaking will require proportionally higher water supply, storage and related costs.

Social Behaviours and Networks of Vervet Monkeys Are Influenced by Gastrointestinal Parasites.

Substantial research has shown that while some parasite infections can be fatal to hosts, most infections are sub-clinical and non-lethal. Such sub-clinical infections can nonetheless have negative consequences for the long-term fitness of the host such as reducing juvenile growth and the host’s ability to compete for food and mates. With such effects, infected individuals are expected to exhibit behavioural changes. Here we use a parasite removal experiment to quantify how gastrointestinal parasite infections affect the behaviour of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda. Behavioural profiles and the structure of nearest neighbour relationships varied significantly. As predicted, after deworming the duration of the resting events decreased, which is consistent with the idea that parasite infections are energetically costly. In contrast to what was predicted, we could not reject the null hypothesis and we observed no change in either the frequency or duration of grooming, but we found that the duration of travel events increased. A network analysis revealed that after deworming, individuals tended to have more nearest neighbours and hence probably more frequent interactions, with this effect being particularly marked for juveniles. The heightened response by juveniles may indicate that they are avoiding infected individuals more than other age classes because it is too costly to move energy away from growth. We consider that populations with high parasite burden may have difficulties developing social networks and behaviours that could have cascading effects that impact the population in general.

Early life overnutrition induced by litter size manipulation decreases social play behavior in adolescent male rats

Several studies have investigated the effects of artificial litter size adjustment on offspring development. Social play behavior is important for neurobehavioral development and is impaired in several developmental psychiatric disorders. This study therefore investigated the effect of litter size on play behavior in adolescent rats. On postnatal day (PND) 2, litters were adjusted to a small litter (SL) size of 3 pups per dam or normal litter (NL) size of 12 pups per dam. Maternal behaviors scored daily during the first week of lactation (PND2-8) revealed that arched nursing and pup licking behaviors were increased in dams with SLs versus those with NLs. SL offspring exhibited accelerated weight gain and advanced development of physical landmarks and reflexes, possibly due to overnutrition. Social isolation lasting 3.5h prior to social play behavioral testing produced a higher frequency and duration of pouncing, pinning, sniffing, and grooming in both male and female offspring. However, male SL offspring exhibited a lower frequency of pouncing and pinning when compared with male NL offspring, while no litter size-dependent differences were observed in social behaviors unrelated to play (sniffing and grooming). These findings identify a possible sexually dimorphic influence of litter size in the development of social behavior. Given that social behaviors such as play behavior are vital for normal cognitive and social development, these findings have important implications for developmental and neuropsychiatric research.

Effect of Chronic Consumption of Powdered Tobacco (Snuff) on Pain Sensation in Mice.

Pain may be defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience, associated with actual or potential tissue damage. The leaves have social and ethnomedical applications. Tobacco is used traditionally to treat arches, snake bites, bowel complains, convulsions, nervous ailment and to cure/heal the pain of toothache when chewed (Melson, 1944). Therefore this study was designed to investigate the effect of chronic consumption of powdered tobacco on pain sensation using two groups of Swiss mice (control and test) weighing 18g-28g (n=15 each).The control received 100g of normal rodent chow, while the test group received 1g of powdered tobacco in 99g of rodent chow per day. Water was given ad libitum while daily food and water intake, as well as body weight changes, were monitored during the 31-day study. The tail flick and formalin tests were used to assess pain sensation. The results showed that the latency of tail flick did not differ between the test and control group. However, in the formalin test, the frequency of paw attention in both phases of the test was significantly lower (P< 0.05, 0.01) compared to the control group. The duration and frequency of grooming (P<0.05, 0.01) and SAP (P< 0.01) were also significantly lower in the tobacco diet group compared to the control in the early phase, thus, showing decrease pain sensation. Therefore, chronic consumption of powdered tobacco diet may decrease pain sensation.

DAT versus D2 receptor binding in the rat striatum: l‐DOPA‐induced motor activity is better predicted by reuptake than release of dopamine

The reuptake and release of dopamine (DA) can be estimated using in vivo imaging methods by assessing the competition between endogenous DA and an administered exogenous DA transporter (DAT) and D2 receptor (D2 R) radioligand, respectively. The aim of this study was to investigate the comparative roles of DA release vs DA reuptake in the rat striatum with small animal SPECT in relation to l-DOPA-induced behaviors. DAT and D2 R binding, together with behavioral measures, were obtained in 99 rats in response to treatment with either 5 or 10 mg/kg l-DOPA or vehicle. The behavioral parameters included the distance travelled, and durations and frequencies of ambulation, sitting, rearing, head-shoulder motility, and grooming. Data were subjected to a cluster analysis and to a multivariate principal component analysis. The highest DAT binding (i.e., the lowest DA reuptake) was associated with the highest, and the lowest DAT binding (i.e., the highest DA reuptake) was associated with the lowest motor/exploratory activity. The highest and the lowest D2 R binding (i.e., the lowest and the highest DA release, respectively) were merely associated with the second highest and second lowest levels of motor/exploratory activity. These findings indicate that changes in DA reuptake in response to fluctuating DA levels offer a better prediction of motor activity than the release of DA into the synaptic cleft. This dissociation, as reflected by in vivo DAT and D2 R binding data, may be accounted for by the regulatory sensitization meachnisms that occur at D2 R binding sites in response to altered levels of DA. Synapse 70:369-377, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Neurofibromin Loss of Function Drives Excessive Grooming in Drosophila.

Neurofibromatosis I is a common genetic disorder that results in tumor formation, and predisposes individuals to a range of cognitive/behavioral symptoms, including deficits in attention, visuospatial skills, learning, language development, and sleep, and autism spectrum disorder-like traits. The nf1-encoded neurofibromin protein (Nf1) exhibits high conservation, from the common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, to humans. Drosophila provides a powerful platform to investigate the signaling cascades upstream and downstream of Nf1, and the fly model exhibits similar behavioral phenotypes to mammalian models. In order to understand how loss of Nf1 affects motor behavior in flies, we combined traditional activity monitoring with video analysis of grooming behavior. In nf1 mutants, spontaneous grooming was increased up to 7x. This increase in activity was distinct from previously described dopamine-dependent hyperactivity, as dopamine transporter mutants exhibited slightly decreased grooming. Finally, we found that relative grooming frequencies can be compared in standard activity monitors that measure infrared beam breaks, enabling the use of activity monitors as an automated method to screen for grooming phenotypes. Overall, these data suggest that loss of nf1 produces excessive activity that is manifested as increased grooming, providing a platform to dissect the molecular genetics of neurofibromin signaling across neuronal circuits.

Assessment of pain responses associated with castration of 10-week-old lambs using the Callicrate ‘WEE Bander’ compared with a standard elastrator

Castration of ram lambs is a standard procedure to facilitate animal management, however all methods of castration used in the lamb industry are considered to be painful based on behavioural and physiological responses. This experiment compares an alternative method of ring castration (Callicrate WEE Bander) with a traditional method of ring castration (Elastrator). The WEE Bander was designed to apply high tension banding resulting in complete ligation and a reduced pain response. Changes in both behaviour and physiology are widely considered as indicative of pain and we used behavioural and physiological measures to evaluate these two methods of castration. Sixty 10- to 11-week-old lambs were studied in three treatments: Castrated using a traditional elastrator (“Elastrator”); Callicrate WEE Bander (“WEE Bander”); and a sham castration treatment (“Control”).The castration treatments clearly affected behaviour in the first 2h after castration with reductions in duration of eating chaff and frequency of drinking and grooming, and increases in duration of lying lateral and frequency of easing of quarters, foot stamping, restless lying, standing with head down, posture changes, tail wagging and walking, (all P<0.001). However, no clear differences (P<0.01) in behaviour were seen between the two castration treatments during this period. While lambs in the castration treatments had higher (P<0.001) plasma cortisol concentrations from 30 to 180min after treatment than the Control lambs, the lambs in the WEE Bander treatment had higher (P<0.05) cortisol concentrations than the Elastrator lambs, only at 30min after treatment. These behavioural and physiological results suggest that in comparison to the Elastrator, the WEE Bander does not reduce pain associated with ring castration in 10–11 week old lambs.

Journal Digest

Journal Digest

Effects of environmental enrichment and stereotypic behavior on maternal behavior and infant viability in a model carnivore, the American mink (Neovison vison).

In several species, stress compromises maternal behaviors that are important for infant viability (e.g. licking and grooming). Understanding how stress in captivity affects maternal behavior could therefore be beneficial, especially for carnivores in zoos and breeding centers where infant mortality is often high. We used a model carnivore--American mink--to test two hypotheses, namely that maternal investment and/or behavior is i. improved by environmental enrichment; and ii. compromised by stereotypic behavior. We observed 22 females raised in an indoor facility, 9 enriched, 13 non-enriched. At birth, and at post-natal day 20 when altricial infants were still fully dependent on their mothers, the following offspring variables were recorded: litter size, infant mortality, litter sex ratio (post-natal day 1), and weight. Maternal behavior was assessed by recording nest shape (post-natal day 1), and the frequency of licking and grooming (post-natal days 1-7). Non-enriched females stereotyped more, had female-skewed litters at birth, and tended to make poorer, flatter nests. Maternal licking and grooming showed large, stable individual differences, but appeared unaffected by enrichment. High levels of maternal stereotypic behavior predicted slower offspring growth, replicating previous findings for farmed mink. Nevertheless, enrichment did not significantly increase infant growth rates nor decrease infant mortality. Due to small sample sizes, our study now needs replicating, particularly to explore the potential benefits of enrichment on nest building, sex ratio effects, and the implications of maternal licking and grooming for offspring stress reactivity. Findings could then apply to endangered mustelids like the European mink.

Lemurs groom-at-a-distance through vocal networks

Vocal exchanges are predicted to serve a social bonding function by allowing conspecifics to ‘groom-at-a-distance’. If vocalizations play a role in bonding, then they should be mainly exchanged between the socially bonded group members, and thus display high social selectivity that characterizes other affiliative behaviours such as grooming. However, whether or not vocal exchanges are driven by social bonds remains unclear. We investigated vocal selectivity by studying the relationships between contact-calling networks and grooming networks in multiple free-ranging groups of ringtailed lemurs, Lemur catta. Lemur grooming interactions were socially selective and were directed towards only some of their group members. However, their vocal exchanges displayed even higher levels of social selectivity. Instead of exchanging vocalizations with each group member they groomed, lemurs reserved their vocal responses mainly for the group members whom they had frequently groomed. We tested this vocal selectivity through a playback experiment in which we presented lemurs' calls to their group. Lemurs responded only to the playbacks of the conspecifics whose calls they had responded to while free-ranging, confirming that selective vocal responses do not depend on proximal (i.e. visual or olfactory) cues from the vocalizing lemur. These robust relationships between grooming and contact-calling networks in lemurs, a species that lives in small groups where grooming frequency reflects bond strength, demonstrates that vocal exchanges indicate the strong social bonds between conspecifics. Contact calls may serve a bonding function in social species by allowing the strongly bonded group members to groom-at-a-distance when they are separated from each other.

Welcome Back: Responses of Female Bonobos (Pan paniscus) to Fusions.

In species with a high degree of fission-fusion social dynamics, fusions may trigger social conflict and thus provide an opportunity to identify sources of social tension and mechanisms related to its alleviation. We characterized behavioral and endocrine responses of captive female bonobos (Pan paniscus) to fusions within a zoo facility designed to simulate naturalistic fission-fusion social dynamics. We compared urinary cortisol levels and frequencies of aggression, grooming and socio-sexual interactions between female bonobos while in stable sub-groups and when one “joiner” was reunited with the “residents” of another sub-group. We hypothesized that fusions would trigger increases in aggression and cortisol levels among reunited joiners and resident females. We further predicted that females who face more uncertainty in their social interactions following fusions may use grooming and/or socio-sexual behavior to reduce social tension and aggression. The only aggression on reunion days occurred between reunited females, but frequencies of aggression remained low across non-reunion and reunion days, and there was no effect of fusions on cortisol levels. Fusions did not influence patterns of grooming, but there were increases in socio-sexual solicitations and socio-sexual interactions between joiners and resident females. Joiners who had been separated from residents for longer received the most solicitations, but were also more selective in their acceptance of solicitations and preferred to have socio-sexual interactions with higher-ranking residents. Our results suggest that socio-sexual interactions play a role in reintegrating female bonobos into social groups following fusions. In addition, females who receive a high number of solicitations are able to gain more control over their socio-sexual interactions and may use socio-sexual interactions for other purposes, such as to enhance their social standing.

Defensive behaviors and prosencephalic neurogenesis in pigeons (Columba livia) are affected by environmental enrichment in adulthood

Neurogenesis in the adult brain appears to be phylogenetically conserved across the animal kingdom. In pigeons and other adult non-oscine birds, immature neurons are observed in several prosencephalic areas, suggesting that neurogenesis may participate in the control of different behaviors. The mechanisms controlling neurogenesis and its relevance to defensive behaviors in non-oscine birds remain elusive. Herein, the contribution of the environment to behavior and neurogenesis of pigeons was investigated. Adult pigeons (Columba livia, n=6/group), housed in standard (SE) or enriched environment (EE) for 42days, were exposed to an unfamiliar environment (UE) followed by presentation to a novel object (NO). Video recordings of UE+NO tests were analyzed and scored for latency, duration and frequency of angular head movements, peeping, grooming, immobility and locomotion. Twenty-four hours later, pigeons were submitted to the tonic immobility test (TI) and number of trials for TI and TI duration were scored, followed by euthanasia 2h later. Brains were immunohistochemically processed to reveal doublecortin (DCX), a marker for newborn neurons. Compared to those housed in SE, the pigeons housed in EE responded to a NO with more immobility. In addition, the pigeons housed in EE presented longer TI, more DCX-immunoreactive (DCX-ir) cells in the hippocampus and fewer DCX-ir cells in the lateral striatum than those housed in SE. There was no correlation between the number of DCX-ir cells and the scores of immobility in behavioral tests. Together, these data suggest that enrichment favored behavioral inhibition and neurogenesis in the adult pigeons through different, parallel mechanisms.