French Space Research Articles

Experimental study of hypervelocity impacts on space shields above 8 km/s

This paper deals with hypervelocity impacts of millimeter size space debris on space structures at velocity regime between 6 and 15 km/s. Millimeter size debris present a real threat to space structures since they cannot be tracked nor detected by radars. At the opposite, for larger debris, 5-10 cm size, avoidance manoeuvre can be conducted remotely from earth to shift the space structure from the threat trajectory. A lot of works (tests and simulations) have been done for debris smaller than 5 cm size. For debris smaller than 1 cm, the maximum impact velocity reachable with available facilities is mainly up to 8-8.5 km/s. As a result, the ballistic limit equation (BLE) for single plate, whipple shield and honeycomb structures are only based on analytical and numerical investigations for higher threat velocity.There is no efficient facility available to generate hypervelocity impacts in the 8-12 km/s regime for millimeter size projectile. To fulfil this need, the French space agency CNES granted a R&T contract to Thiot Ingenierie company for performing hypervelocity tests between 8 and 12 km/s. The contract specified Thiot Ingénierie for performing the analysis and the development of a special hypervelocity device that will be able to propel 1 to 3 mm aluminium sphere at this high velocity regime. With this innovative launcher, impacts of 1 mm sphere diameter at a speed of 10km/s and above is now reachable.The present study presents hypervelocity impacts on different types of targets: single plate, whipple shield and honeycomb structure have been tested. Impact velocities ranging from 7 to 10 km/s have been reached. Specific diagnostic tools (very high speed camera, X-rays flash photography …) are used to analyse the tests. Results, in terms of ejecta projection, post-impact damage are presented. The effects of ejecta tunnelling in the case of honeycomb shield is highlighted.

Intervertebral Disc Swelling Demonstrated by 3D and Water Content Magnetic Resonance Analyses after a 3-Day Dry Immersion Simulating Microgravity.

Background: Vertebral deconditioning is commonly experienced after space flight and simulation studies. Disc herniation is quadrupled after space flight.Purpose: The main hypothesis formulated by the authors is that microgravity results in intervertebral disc (IVD) swelling.Study Design: The aim of the study was to identify the morphological changes of the spine and their clinical consequences after simulated microgravity by 3-day dry immersion (DI). The experimental protocol was performed on 12 male volunteers using magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy before and after DI.Methods: All the experiment was financially supported by CNES (Centre national d'études spatiales i.e., French Space Agency).Results: We observed an increase in spine height of 1.5 ± 0.4 cm and a decrease in curvature, particularly for the lumbar region with a decrease of −4 ± 2.5°. We found a significant increase in IVD volume of +8 ± 9% at T12-L1 and +11 ± 9% at L5-S1. This phenomenon is likely associated with the increase in disc intervertebral water content (IWC), 17 ± 27%. During the 3 days in DI, 92% of the subjects developed back pain in the lumbar region below the diaphragmatic muscle. This clinical observation may be linked to the morphological changes of the spine.Conclusions: The morphological changes observed and, specifically, the disc swelling caused by increased IWC may contribute to understanding disc herniation after microgravity exposure. Our results confirmed the efficiency of the 3-day DI model to reproduce quickly the effects of microgravity on spine morphology. Our findings raise the question of the subject selection in spatial studies, especially studies about spine morphology and reconditioning programs after space flight. These results may contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying disc herniation and may serve as the basis to develop countermeasures for astronauts and to prevent IVD herniation and back pain on Earth.

Adapted ECC ozonesonde for long-duration flights aboard boundary-layer pressurised balloons

Abstract. Since the 1970s, the French space agency CNES has developed boundary-layer pressurised balloons (BLPBs) with the capability to transport lightweight scientific payloads at isopycnic level and offer a quasi-Lagrangian sampling of the lower atmosphere over very long distances and durations (up to several weeks).Electrochemical concentration cell (ECC) ozonesondes are widely used under small sounding balloons. However, their autonomy is limited to a few hours owing to power consumption and electrolyte evaporation. An adaptation of the ECC sonde has been developed specifically for long-duration BLPB flights. Compared to conventional ECC sondes, the main feature is the possibility of programming periodic measurement sequences (with possible remote control during the flight). To increase the ozonesonde autonomy, the strategy has been adopted of short measurement sequences (2–3 min) regularly spaced in time (e.g. every 15 min). The rest of the time, the sonde pump is turned off. Results of preliminary ground-based tests are first presented. In particular, the sonde was able to provide correct ozone concentrations against a reference UV-absorption ozone analyser every 15 min for 4 days. Then we illustrate results from 16 BLBP flights launched over the western Mediterranean during three summer field campaigns of the ChArMEx project (http://charmex.lsce.ipsl.fr): TRAQA in 2012, and ADRIMED and SAFMED in 2013. BLPB drifting altitudes were in the range 0.25–3.2 km. The longest flight lasted more than 32 h and covered more than 1000 km. Satisfactory data were obtained when compared to independent ozone measurements close in space and time. The quasi-Lagrangian measurements allowed a first look at ozone diurnal evolution in the marine boundary layer as well as in the lower free troposphere. During some flight segments, there was indication of photochemical ozone production in the marine boundary layer or even in the free troposphere, at rates ranging from 1 to 2 ppbv h −1, which is slower than previously found in the boundary layer over land in the same region.

An Inquiry on Contrast Enhancement Methods for Satellite Images

Enhancement algorithms are absolutely necessary for the visualization of both shadowed and bright image regions. Defining algorithms that permit to visualize them simultaneously without altering the image content is therefore extremely relevant for remote sensing applications. In this paper, we present the results of two successive benchmarks which tested the performance of the state-of-the-art contrast enhancement and tone-mapping algorithms applied to satellite images. Experts from the French Space Agency Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), Service Regional de Traitement d'Image et de Teledetection (SERTIT), and two European universities assessed the quality and fidelity of the results of several state-of-the-art enhancement algorithms on the excerpts from seven images (five Pleiades and two simulated 30-cm images). The first benchmark permitted to tighten the procedure and the selection of the test images for the second one, and to make a first selection of concurrent algorithms. The second benchmark not only included the best algorithms selected by the first benchmark but also added even more competitors in the tone-mapping class. The results of both benchmarks were coherent. They point a particular retinex-based algorithm as the best compromise between the competitive requirements of a contrast enhancement in dark regions and a preservation of detail in bright parts.

Development of PPP-method realization for low earth orbit satellite trajectory determination using on-board gps-observations

The results of development and testing of new PPP-method realization (Precise Point Positioning) for high-precision determination of Low Earth Orbit satellites (LEOS) trajectory parameters using the results of on-board GPS-observations and kinematic (geometric) positioning mode are presented. The peculiarities and features of the proposed variant of the PPP–method of GPS-observation processing with using of precise ephemerides and GPS satellites clocks as well as other information from the international IGS service and the French space agency CNES are described. The components of the observation error model and the results of “a priori” and “a posteriori” accuracy estimation of coordinate determinations are described. Using the example of on-board GPS-observations processing from specialized LEOS COSMIC it is indicated that for observation intervals of 30–40 minutes and more sub-decimeter accuracy of LEOS positioning may be achieved. The results of comparison of convergence of “float” and discrete/integer (“fixed”) methods of carrier-phase ambiguity resolution are presented. The presented development may be used for high-precision positioning and timing support of modern satellite technologies to detect contaminants, erosion studies, support of scientific and applied projects in geodesy, geophysics, climatology, orbitography, meteorology. The research results may be used in solving the problems of the LEOS maneuvering and docking.

Bernard Zappoli's contribution to the French scientific life

In November 2014, at the annual meeting of the research group “Fundamental and Applied Microgravity” held in Carqueiranne, France, I was asked to speak on Bernard Zappoli and his accomplishments. The following is an edited transcription of the speech delivered in his honor following his recent retirement as the Head of The Physical Science Programme at the French Space Agency (CNES). After an introduction outlining his human qualities and retirement as engineer emeritus, his career is summarized. It then details the scientific activities he has undertaken during different periods of his career at several universities, the European Society of Propulsion (“Société européenne de propulsion”, SEP), and the CNES. Special attention is devoted to the research groups at the CNES/CNRS that we initiated and the management of which I had been sharing with him for several years. Allusion is made to his recent and new retiree activities.

Low-Atmosphere Drifting Balloons: Platforms for Environment Monitoring and Forecast Improvement

Abstract Balloons are one of the key observing platforms for the atmosphere. Radiosounding is the most commonly used technique and provides over a thousand vertical profiles worldwide every day. These data represent an essential cornerstone of data assimilation for numerical weather prediction systems. Although less common (but equally interesting for the in situ investigation of the atmosphere), drifting boundary layer pressurized balloons (BLPBs) offer rare observational skills. These balloons collect meteorological and/or chemical measurements at isopycnal height as they drift in a quasi-Lagrangian way. The BLPB system presented in this paper was developed by the French Space Agency [Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES)] and has been used in field experiments focusing on precipitation in Africa [African Monsoon Multiscale Analysis (AMMA)] and the Mediterranean [Hydrological Cycle in the Mediterranean Experiment (HyMeX)] as well as on air pollution in India [Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX)] and the Mediterranean [Transport a Longue Distance et Qualite de l’Air dans le bassin Méditerraneen (TRAQA) and Chemistry–Aerosol Mediterranean Experiment (ChArMeX)]. One important advantage of BLPBs is their capability to explore the lowest layers of the atmosphere above the oceans, areas that remain difficult to access. BLPB had a leading role in a complex adaptive observation system for the forecast of severe precipitation events. These balloons collected data in the marine environment of convective systems, which were assimilated in real time to improve the knowledge of the state of the atmosphere in the numerical prediction models of Météo-France.

The First European Parabolic Flight Campaign with the Airbus A310 ZERO-G

Aircraft parabolic flights repetitively provide up to 23 seconds of reduced gravity during ballistic flight manoeuvres. Parabolic flights are used to conduct short microgravity investigations in Physical and Life Sciences and in Technology, to test instrumentation prior to space flights and to train astronauts before a space mission. The use of parabolic flights is complementary to other microgravity carriers (drop towers, sounding rockets), and preparatory to manned space missions on board the International Space Station and other manned spacecraft, such as Shenzhou and the future Chinese Space Station. After 17 years of using the Airbus A300 ZERO-G, the French company Novespace, a subsidiary of the ’Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales’ (CNES, French Space Agency), based in Bordeaux, France, purchased a new aircraft, an Airbus A310, to perform parabolic flights for microgravity research in Europe. Since April 2015, the European Space Agency (ESA), CNES and the ‘Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.’ (DLR, the German Aerospace Center) use this new aircraft, the Airbus A310 ZERO-G, for research experiments in microgravity. The first campaign was a Cooperative campaign shared by the three agencies, followed by respectively a CNES, an ESA and a DLR campaign. This paper presents the new Airbus A310 ZERO-G and its main characteristics and interfaces for scientific experiments. The experiments conducted during the first European campaign are presented.

Polarized Beams Using Scalar Metasurfaces

This paper deals with the design of scalar metasurface antennas capable of radiating a well-polarized beam in the far-field or near-field zones. The equivalent electric current over the metasurface is used to derive design equations to generate the desired field pattern based on the scalar impedance condition. In particular, it is shown that scalar metasurfaces can be used to generate linear and circular polarizations for a fixed pointing direction in the far field by properly changing locally the scalar impedance boundary condition. In addition, they can also be used to generate normal polarized Bessel beams in the near-field region. Several solutions are presented at 20 GHz, with different polarizations and feeders developed in the framework of a two-year research project financed by the French space agency (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales). Measurements and full-wave results validate the proposed approach.

New THERME Experiment Concept for Measuring Thermal Coating Aging

The French Space Agency has developed a simple, low-cost experiment, “THERME,” which aims to assess the aging of thermal coatings by measuring solar absorptivity. This experiment is now used on-board several low-Earth-orbit (LEO) Sun-synchronous satellites. The most significant in-orbit results for thermal control coatings (white paints, second surface mirrors, and Kapton) are summarized in this paper. To use THERME on-board geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) missions, the existing THERME concept had to be modified to allow typical rigid GEO thermal coatings such as optical solar reflectors to be carried. This new concept was developed based on the LEO THERME design and was made to be as nonspecific as possible, and so it may be carried on any industrial GEO satellite. The development and qualification of this new THERME concept, the so-called “THERME GEO” or “THERME rigid,” is presented in this paper. “THERME GEO” is currently being used on two telecom satellites. All the flight models were subject to thermal and mechanical acceptance testing in accordance with the satellite specifications. These tests, as well as the first flight data, are described in this paper.

Results of the first EUSO-Balloon flight

EUSO-Balloon, a balloon-borne diffractive fluorescence telescope, was launched by the French Space Agency ONES from the Timmins base in Ontario (Canada) on August 25th in 2014. After reaching the floating altitude of about 38 km, EUSO-Balloon imaged the UV background for more than 5 hours before descending to ground using the key technologies of JEM-EUSO. A detailed and precise measurement of the UV background in different atmospheric and ground conditions was achieved. The instrument proved the capability of detecting Extensive Air Showers (EAS) by observing laser tracks with similar characteristics. This contribution will summarise the first results obtained concerning all the topics described above.

Lagrangian temperature and vertical velocity fluctuations due to gravity waves in the lower stratosphere

AbstractWave‐induced Lagrangian fluctuations of temperature and vertical velocity in the lower stratosphere are quantified using measurements from superpressure balloons (SPBs). Observations recorded every minute along SPB flights allow the whole gravity wave spectrum to be described and provide unprecedented information on both the intrinsic frequency spectrum and the probability distribution function of wave fluctuations. The data set has been collected during two campaigns coordinated by the French Space Agency in 2010, involving 19 balloons over Antarctica and 3 in the deep tropics. In both regions, the vertical velocity distributions depart significantly from a Gaussian behavior. Knowledge on such wave fluctuations is essential for modeling microphysical processes along Lagrangian trajectories. We propose a new simple parameterization that reproduces both the non‐Gaussian distribution of vertical velocities (or heating/cooling rates) and their observed intrinsic frequency spectrum.

The Philae Lander: Science planning and operations

Rosetta is an ambitious mission launched in March 2004 to study comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. It is composed of a space probe (Rosetta) and the Philae Lander. The mission is a series of premieres: among others, first probe to escort a comet, first time a landing site is selected with short turnaround time, first time a lander has landed on a comet nucleus. In November 2014, once stabilized on the comet, Philae has performed its “First Science Sequence”. Philae’s aim was to perform detailed and innovative in-situ experiments on the comet’s surface to characterize the nucleus by performing mechanical, chemical and physical investigations on the comet surface. The main contribution to the Rosetta lander by the French space agency (CNES) is the Science Operation and Navigation Center (SONC) located in Toulouse. Among its tasks is the scheduling of the scientific activities of the 10 lander experiments and then to provide it to the Lander Control Center (LCC) located in DLR Cologne. The teams in charge of the Philae activity scheduling had to cope with considerable constraints in term of energy, data management, asynchronous processes and co-activities or exclusions between instruments. Moreover the comet itself, its environment and the landing conditions remained unknown until separation time. The landing site was selected once the operational sequence was already designed. This paper will explain the specific context of the Rosetta lander mission and all the constraints that the lander activity scheduling had to face to fulfill the scientific objectives specified for Philae. A specific tool was developed by CNES and used to design the complete sequence of activities on the comet with respect to all constraints. The baseline scenario for the lander operation will also be detailed as well as the sequence performed on the comet to highlight the difficulties and challenges that the operational team faced.

MERLIN (Methane Remote Sensing Lidar Mission): an Overview

The Methane Remote Sensing Lidar Mission (MERLIN), currently in phase B, is a joint cooperation between France and Germany on the development, launch and operation of a methane (CH4) monitoring satellite. MERLIN is focused on global measurements of the spatial and temporal gradients of atmospheric CH4, the second most anthropogenic gas, with a precision and accuracy sufficient to constrain Methane fluxes significantly better than with the current observation network.For the first time, measurements of atmospheric composition will be performed from space thanks to an IPDA (Integrated Path Differential Absorption) LIDAR (Light Detecting And Ranging). This payload is under the responsibility of the German space agency (DLR), while the platform (MYRIADE Evolutions product line) is developed by the French space agency (CNES). The IPDA technique relies on DIAL (Differential Absorption LIDAR) measurements using a pulsed laser emitting at two wavelengths, one wavelength accurately locked on a spectral feature of the methane absorption line, and the other wavelength free from absorption to be used as reference. This technique enables measurements in all seasons, at all latitudes. It also guarantees almost no contamination by aerosols or water vapour cross-sensitivity, and thus has the advantage of an extremely low level of systematic error on the dry-air column mixing ratio of CH4.

Dealing with missing data: An inpainting application to the MICROSCOPE space mission

Missing data are a common problem in experimental and observational physics. They can be caused by various sources, either an instrument's saturation, or a contamination from an external event, or a data loss. In particular, they can have a disastrous effect when one is seeking to characterize a colored-noise-dominated signal in Fourier space, since they create a spectral leakage that can artificially increase the noise. It is therefore important to either take them into account or to correct for them prior to e.g. a Least-Square fit of the signal to be characterized. In this paper, we present an application of the {\it inpainting} algorithm to mock MICROSCOPE data; {\it inpainting} is based on a sparsity assumption, and has already been used in various astrophysical contexts; MICROSCOPE is a French Space Agency mission, whose launch is expected in 2016, that aims to test the Weak Equivalence Principle down to the $10^{-15}$ level. We then explore the {\it inpainting} dependence on the number of gaps and the total fraction of missing values. We show that, in a worst-case scenario, after reconstructing missing values with {\it inpainting}, a Least-Square fit may allow us to significantly measure a $1.1\times10^{-15}$ Equivalence Principle violation signal, which is sufficiently close to the MICROSCOPE requirements to implement {\it inpainting} in the official MICROSCOPE data processing and analysis pipeline. Together with the previously published KARMA method, {\it inpainting} will then allow us to independently characterize and cross-check an Equivalence Principle violation signal detection down to the $10^{-15}$ level.

Using SARAL/AltiKa to Improve Ka-band Altimeter Measurements for Coastal Zones, Hydrology and Ice: The PEACHI Prototype

Following the successful launch of the SARAL space mission in February 2013, the reliability of the innovative AltiKa altimeter has been demonstrated for deep ocean applications, where Ka-band performances are excellent. With the objective to ensure the complementarity but also the continuity with the altimeter Level-2 products provided in the open ocean, the Prototype for Expertise on AltiKa for Coastal, Hydrology and Ice (PEACHI) project has been set up as an initiative of the French space agency, CNES, to provide a data set of research-grade Level-2 parameters that might be interesting for SARAL secondary objectives on the study of coastal dynamics, inland waters, polar oceans, or continental and sea ices. Thus, the PEACHI prototype has been developed to process and accurately tune dedicated algorithms for the assessment of Ka-band parameters, from the instrument processing to geophysical corrections. As a result, the PEACHI prototype routinely provides end users with new or improved altimeter corrections for scientific applications dedicated to mesoscale monitoring but also synergistic science.

The EUSO-Balloon pathfinder

EUSO-Balloon is a pathfinder for JEM-EUSO, the Extreme Universe Space Observatory which is to be hosted on-board the International Space Station. As JEM-EUSO is designed to observe Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECR)-induced Extensive Air Showers (EAS) by detecting their ultraviolet light tracks “from above”, EUSO-Balloon is a nadir-pointing UV telescope too. With its Fresnel Optics and Photo-Detector Module, the instrument monitors a 50 km2 ground surface area in a wavelength band of 290–430 nm, collecting series of images at a rate of 400,000 frames/sec. The objectives of the balloon demonstrator are threefold: a) perform a full end-to-end test of a JEM-EUSO prototype consisting of all the main subsystems of the space experiment, b) measure the effective terrestrial UV background, with a spatial and temporal resolution relevant for JEM-EUSO. c) detect tracks of ultraviolet light from near space for the first time. The latter is a milestone in the development of UHECR science, paving the way for any future space-based UHECR observatory. On August 25, 2014, EUSO-Balloon was launched from Timmins Stratospheric Balloon Base (Ontario, Canada) by the balloon division of the French Space Agency CNES. From a float altitude of 38 km, the instrument operated during the entire astronomical night, observing UV-light from a variety of ground-covers and from hundreds of simulated EASs, produced by flashers and a laser during a two-hour helicopter under-flight.

The CNES Earth Observation Program [Space Agencies

This paper provides an overview of the Earth Observation activities of the French Space Agency.

Провинция как пространство трагического (на материале французской реалистической и натуралистической прозы 50-70-х гг. XIX в.)

Провинция как пространство трагического (на материале французской реалистической и натуралистической прозы 50-70-х гг. XIX в.)

European parabolic flight campaigns with Airbus ZERO-G: Looking back at the A300 and looking forward to the A310

Aircraft parabolic flights repetitively provide up to 23s of reduced gravity during ballistic flight manoeuvres. Parabolic flights are used to conduct short microgravity investigations in Physical and Life Sciences and in Technology, to test instrumentation prior to space flights and to train astronauts before a space mission. The use of parabolic flights is complementary to other microgravity carriers (drop towers, sounding rockets), and preparatory to manned space missions on board the International Space Station and other manned spacecraft, such as Shenzhou and the Chinese Space Station CSS.The European Space Agency (ESA), the ‘Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales’ (CNES, French Space Agency) and the ‘Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.’ (DLR, the German Aerospace Centre) have used the Airbus A300 ZERO-G for research experiments in microgravity, and at Moon and Mars gravity levels, from 1997 until October 2014. The French company Novespace, a subsidiary of CNES, based in Bordeaux, France, is in charge of the organisation of Airbus A300 ZERO-G flights. A total of 104 parabolic flight campaigns have been organised by ESA, CNES and DLR since 1997, including 38 ESA, 34 CNES and 23 DLR microgravity campaigns, two Joint European ESA-CNES-DLR Partial-g Parabolic Flight Campaigns, and seven ESA Student campaigns.After 17years of good and loyal services, this European workhorse for microgravity research in parabolic flights has been retired. The successor aircraft, the Airbus A310 ZERO-G, is being prepared for a first ESA-CNES-DLR cooperative campaign in Spring 2015.This paper looks back over 17years of microgravity research in parabolic flights with the A300 ZERO-G, and introduces the new A310 ZERO-G that will be used from 2015 onwards.